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Vaccines
Special Issues
Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines
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Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines

A special issue of Vaccines (ISSN 2076-393X). This special issue belongs to the section "Pathogens-host Immune Interface".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 May 2025 | Viewed by 6758

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Salman L. Butt

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
Interests: one health; virus–host interaction; vaccine development; diagnostic assay development
Dr. Henry Kariithi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Nairobi 00200, P.O. Box 57811, Kenya
Interests: one health; virus–symbiont–host interaction; epidemiology; phylogeography; virus evolution; diagnostic assay and vaccine development

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The outcome of virus infection and pathogenesis involves a complex virus–host interaction at the cellular level. Host restrictive factors limit viral replication, while viral proteins help the virus evade the host cell's immune response. This Special Issue of Vaccines, "Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines" provides a platform for research studies on virus–host interactions. This includes molecular studies using advanced technologies, in vitro models for virus–host cell interaction, and novel vaccine development platforms for viruses affecting humans and animals.

We welcome studies that develop and use in vitro models to understand virus–host cell interactions and invite studies that are focused on novel vaccine development platforms for viruses of both human and animal importance.

Dr. Salman L. Butt
Dr. Henry Kariithi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vaccines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • multi-omics
  • innate immunity
  • spatial
  • virulence
  • persistence

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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10 pages, 4148 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Cellular and Humoral Immunity to Commercial Cattle BVDV Vaccines in White-Tailed Deer
by Paola M. Boggiatto, Mitchell V. Palmer, Steven C. Olsen and Shollie M. Falkenberg
Vaccines 2025, 13(4), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13040427 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 336
Abstract
Background/Objectives: White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (WTD) play a central role at the human–livestock–wildlife interface, given their contribution to the spread of diseases that can affect livestock. These include a variety of bacterial, viral, and prion diseases with significant economic impact. Given [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (WTD) play a central role at the human–livestock–wildlife interface, given their contribution to the spread of diseases that can affect livestock. These include a variety of bacterial, viral, and prion diseases with significant economic impact. Given the implications for WTD as potential reservoirs for a variety of diseases, methods for prevention and disease control in WTD are an important consideration. Methods: Using commercial livestock vaccines against bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in killed and modified live formulations, we test the ability of WTD to develop humoral and cellular immune responses following vaccination. Results: We demonstrate that, similar to cattle, WTD develop humoral immune responses to both killed and modified live formulations. Conclusions: As the farmed deer industry and the use of livestock vaccines in non-approved species grow, this type of information will help inform and develop improved husbandry and veterinary care practices. Additionally, while we were unable to detect cell-mediated immune responses to the vaccine, we established PrimeFlow as a method to detect IFN-γ responses in specific T cell populations, adding another level of resolution to our ability to understand WTD immune responses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines)
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23 pages, 3813 KiB  
Article
The Genetic Evolution of DENV2 in the French Territories of the Americas: A Retrospective Study from the 2000s to the 2024 Epidemic, Including a Comparison of Amino Acid Changes with Vaccine Strains
by Alisé Lagrave, Antoine Enfissi, Sourakhata Tirera, Magalie Pierre Demar, Jean Jaonasoa, Jean-François Carod, Tsiriniaina Ramavoson, Tiphanie Succo, Luisiane Carvalho, Sophie Devos, Frédérique Dorleans, Lucie Leon, Alain Berlioz-Arthaud, Didier Musso, Raphaëlle Klitting, Xavier de Lamballerie, Anne Lavergne and Dominique Rousset
Vaccines 2025, 13(3), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13030264 - 1 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1070
Abstract
Background: Dengue virus type 2 (DENV2) is endemic to hyperendemic in the French territories of the Americas (FTAs), including French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint-Barthelemy, and Saint-Martin. In 2023–2024, French Guiana, Martinique, and Guadeloupe experienced unprecedented dengue epidemics partly associated with this serotype. In [...] Read more.
Background: Dengue virus type 2 (DENV2) is endemic to hyperendemic in the French territories of the Americas (FTAs), including French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint-Barthelemy, and Saint-Martin. In 2023–2024, French Guiana, Martinique, and Guadeloupe experienced unprecedented dengue epidemics partly associated with this serotype. In response, we conducted a retrospective study of the diversity of DENV2 strains circulating in the FTAs from 2000 to 2024. Methods: To this end, we selected DENV2 samples from the collection at the National Research Center for Arboviruses in French Guiana (NRCA-FG) and sequenced them using Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT)-based next-generation sequencing (NGS). Results: Phylogenetic analysis revealed that (i) the 77 DENV2 sequences from the FTAs belong to two distinct genotypes—Asian American and Cosmopolitan; (ii) from the 2000s up to the 2019 epidemic in French Guiana, all sequenced strains belonged to the Asian American genotype; (iii) and from 2019 to 2020, strains circulating in Martinique and Guadeloupe belonged to the Cosmopolitan genotype, specifically the Indian subcontinent sublineage, while (iv) strains from the 2023–2024 outbreak in Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana fall within a distinct sublineage of the same genotype—Other Cosmopolitan. Additionally, we analyzed amino acid (AA) changes in FTA sequences compared to the Dengvaxia® and Qdenga® vaccines. The analysis of amino acid changes in FTA sequences compared to the vaccines (Dengvaxia® and Qdenga®) identified 42 amino acid changes in the prM/E regions (15 in the prM region and 27 in the E region) relative to CYD-2 Dengvaxia® and 46 amino acid changes in the prM/E regions relative to Qdenga®, including 16 in the prM region and 30 in the E region. Some of these AA changes are shared across multiple genotypes and sublineages, with 8 substitutions in the prM region and 18 in the E region appearing in both analyses. This raises questions about the potential impact of these changes on vaccine efficacy. Conclusion: Overall, these findings provide a current overview of the genomic evolution of DENV2 in the FTA, which is crucial for developing more effective prevention and control strategies and for selecting future vaccines tailored to circulating strains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines)
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24 pages, 4636 KiB  
Article
Collective Immunity to the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella Viruses in the Kyrgyz Population
by Anna Yurievna Popova, Viacheslav Sergeevich Smirnov, Svetlana Alexandrovna Egorova, Zuridin Sharipovich Nurmatov, Angelika Marsovna Milichkina, Irina Victorovna Drozd, Gulzada Saparbekovna Dadanova, Gulnara Dzhumadylovna Zhumagulova, Ekaterina Mikhailovna Danilova, Zharkynbek Orozbekovich Kasymbekov, Victoria Georgievna Drobyshevskaya, Gulsunay Zhumabaevna Sattarova, Oyuna Bayarovna Zhimbaeva, Edward Smith Ramsay, Zhanylay Nuridinovna Nuridinova, Valery Andreevich Ivanov, Altynai Keneshpekovna Urmanbetova and Areg Artemovich Totolian
Vaccines 2025, 13(3), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13030249 - 27 Feb 2025
Viewed by 625
Abstract
Specific prevention of measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) is the main prerequisite for a radical reduction in the incidence of these infections in the Kyrgyz Republic (KR). An increase in the number of seronegative individuals observed in recent years has led to an [...] Read more.
Specific prevention of measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) is the main prerequisite for a radical reduction in the incidence of these infections in the Kyrgyz Republic (KR). An increase in the number of seronegative individuals observed in recent years has led to an increase in measles incidence. This is directly related to a decrease in collective immunity, which provides protection for the population only in conditions of a high density of immunized individuals and their uniform distribution in the population. The only way to estimate the number of immunized individuals is by conducting serological surveys of collective immunity. Aim of the study: The aim was to study the level of collective immunity to the MMR viruses in the KR. Materials and methods: This study involved a cohort of 6617 residents (volunteers) aged 1 to 70+ years, formed in accordance with the Rospotrebnadzor program “Assessment of collective immunity to vaccine-preventable and other relevant infections” and stratified by age and region of residence. During the study, participants filled out a questionnaire and gave venous blood samples to determine IgG antibodies to MMR viruses (ELISA using certified Russian test systems). Results: In December 2023, collective immunity ensured epidemiological well-being only with respect to rubella. The volunteer seropositivity was 94.2% (95% CI: 93.7–94.8). The average measles seropositivity was 78.9% (95% CI: 77.9–79.9). It was significantly lower in children aged 1–17 years and significantly higher than the cohort average in individuals aged ≥18 years. The average mumps seropositivity was 76.4% (95% CI: 75.3–77.4), with the minimum level noted among individuals aged 12–29 years (63.8%; 95% CI: 61.4–66.2). The maximum levels of mumps seropositivity were noted among children aged 6–11 years and older adults who had likely experienced mumps (50–70+ years). Seroprevalence distributions by activity correlated with age distributions (all infections). Conclusions: The system of targeted prophylaxis of vaccine-preventable infections adopted in the KR has contributed to the formation of a high level of rubella collective immunity and, to a lesser extent, measles and mumps immunity. The recent trend towards increases in measles and mumps incidence in the KR requires additional efforts to increase collective immunity to these infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines)
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12 pages, 3816 KiB  
Article
Effect of Inoculation Volume on a Mouse Model of Influenza Virus Infected with the Same Viral Load
by Yali Sun, Yuwei Wei, Xuelian Han, Yuan Wang, Qi Yin, Yuhang Zhang, Tiantian Yang, Jiejie Zhang, Keyu Sun, Feimin Fang, Shuai Zhang, Kai Yuan, Min Li and Guangyu Zhao
Vaccines 2025, 13(2), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13020173 - 12 Feb 2025
Viewed by 790
Abstract
Background: Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory disease that poses significant health and economic burdens. Mice are commonly used as animal models for studying influenza virus pathogenesis and the development of vaccines and drugs. However, the viral volume used for nasal inoculation varies [...] Read more.
Background: Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory disease that poses significant health and economic burdens. Mice are commonly used as animal models for studying influenza virus pathogenesis and the development of vaccines and drugs. However, the viral volume used for nasal inoculation varies substantially in reported mouse influenza infection models, and the appropriate viral dose is crucial for reproducing experimental results. Methods: Mice were inoculated with mouse lung-adapted strains of influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) via intranasal administration of 10 μL, 20 μL, and 40 μL at doses of 200 plaque-forming units (PFU) and 2000 PFU. This study investigated the impact of varying viral inoculum volumes on murine outcomes at identical doses and assessed the disparities across diverse dosage levels. Results: Regarding weight change trajectories, mortalities, lung tissue viral titers, and pathological manifestations, the group that received the 40 μL inoculation volume within the low-dose infection mice (200 PFU) manifested a statistically significant divergence from those inoculated with both the 10 μL and 20 μL volumes. Within the context of high-dose infections (2000 PFU), groups that received inoculation volumes of 20 μL and 40 μL exhibited marked disparities when compared to those receiving the 10 μL volume. Conclusions: Disparities in inoculation volume, even under uniform infection dosages, engender differential outcomes in pathogenicity. Of particular note, the viral replication efficacy at a 20 μL inoculation volume demonstrates conspicuous fluctuations across diverse infection dose regimens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines)
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Review

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14 pages, 250 KiB  
Review
Memory Cells in Infection and Autoimmunity: Mechanisms, Functions, and Therapeutic Implications
by Shilpi Giri and Lalit Batra
Vaccines 2025, 13(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13020205 - 19 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1258
Abstract
Memory cells are central to the adaptive immune system’s ability to remember and respond effectively to previously encountered pathogens. While memory cells provide robust protection against infections, they can also contribute to autoimmunity when regulation fails. Here, we review the roles of memory [...] Read more.
Memory cells are central to the adaptive immune system’s ability to remember and respond effectively to previously encountered pathogens. While memory cells provide robust protection against infections, they can also contribute to autoimmunity when regulation fails. Here, we review the roles of memory T and B cells in infection and autoimmunity, focusing on their differentiation, activation, effector functions, and underlying regulatory mechanisms. We elaborate on the precise mechanisms by which memory cells contribute to autoimmune diseases, highlighting insights from current research on how pathogenic memory responses are formed and sustained in autoimmunity. Finally, we explore potential therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating memory cells to prevent or treat autoimmune disorders, including B cell-depleting therapies (e.g., Rituximab), T cell-targeting agents (e.g., Abatacept), and cytokine inhibitors (e.g., IL-17 or IL-23 blockers) that are currently used in diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and psoriasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines)
21 pages, 2102 KiB  
Review
The Strategies Used by Animal Viruses to Antagonize Host Antiviral Innate Immunity: New Clues for Developing Live Attenuated Vaccines (LAVs)
by Na Chen and Baoge Zhang
Vaccines 2025, 13(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13010046 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1623
Abstract
As an essential type of vaccine, live attenuated vaccines (LAVs) play a crucial role in animal disease prevention and control. Nevertheless, developing LAVs faces the challenge of balancing safety and efficacy. Understanding the mechanisms animal viruses use to antagonize host antiviral innate immunity [...] Read more.
As an essential type of vaccine, live attenuated vaccines (LAVs) play a crucial role in animal disease prevention and control. Nevertheless, developing LAVs faces the challenge of balancing safety and efficacy. Understanding the mechanisms animal viruses use to antagonize host antiviral innate immunity may help to precisely regulate vaccine strains and maintain strong immunogenicity while reducing their pathogenicity. It may improve the safety and efficacy of LAVs, as well as provide a more reliable means for the prevention and control of infectious livestock diseases. Therefore, exploring viral antagonistic mechanisms is a significant clue for developing LAVs, which helps to explore more viral virulence factors (as new vaccine targets) and provides a vital theoretical basis and technical support for vaccine development. Among animal viruses, ASFV, PRRSV, PRV, CSFV, FMDV, PCV, PPV, and AIV are some typical representatives. It is crucial to conduct in-depth research and summarize the antagonistic strategies of these typical animal viruses. Studies have indicated that animal viruses may antagonize the antiviral innate immunity by directly or indirectly blocking the antiviral signaling pathways. In addition, viruses also do this by antagonizing host restriction factors targeting the viral replication cycle. Beyond that, viruses may antagonize via regulating apoptosis, metabolic pathways, and stress granule formation. A summary of viral antagonistic mechanisms might provide a new theoretical basis for understanding the pathogenic mechanism of animal viruses and developing LAVs based on antagonistic mechanisms and viral virulence factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Infections, Host Immunity and Vaccines)
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