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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Venoms".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 September 2026 | Viewed by 8881

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Anita Malhotra

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Guest Editor

School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
Interests: adaptation; speciation; comparative genomics; proteomics; phylogeography; venom variation; snakebite envenomation

Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad 500007, India
Interests: identifying drivers of herpetofaunal endemism; ecology of endangered herp species; development of field techniques for the study of rare and endangered species

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The aim of this Special Issue is to showcase studies that illustrate how collaboration between scientists from disparate fields (including, but not limited to, ecology, systematics, proteomics, genomics, clinical studies, social science and epidemiology) and non-scientists (including, but not limited to, field workers, health educators, NGOs, community health activists, policy makers and antivenom manufacturers) can lead to greater insights and progress towards reducing the global burden of snakebites than people working within their own separate fields. By doing so, we hope to encourage more kinds of these collaborations in the future.

Dr. Anita Malhotra
Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan
Guest Editors

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Keywords

snakebite envenomation
antivenom
interdisciplinary studies
snake venom
community health
One Health

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

9 pages, 219 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Lessons Learned from a Military–Biotechnology Partnership to Develop a Broad-Spectrum Small-Molecule Inhibitor for Snakebite Envenoming

by Kendra L. Lawrence, Jeffery L. Owen, Lindsey S. Garver, Brandi A. Ritter, Christopher M. Wilson, Ginger R. Boatright, F. Y. Bowling, Timothy F. Platts-Mills, Andrea K. Renner and Rebecca W. Carter

Toxins 2026, 18(4), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040180 - 8 Apr 2026

Viewed by 755

Abstract

Snakebite envenoming causes an estimated 138,000 deaths annually worldwide, with approximately 75% of fatalities occurring prior to arrival at definitive medical care. Even in regions where antivenom is available in hospitals, the absence of treatment options before a victim can reach definitive care results in delays of many hours before therapy is initiated. Manufacturing complexity, region-specific products, and the risk of anaphylaxis further limit the availability and use of antivenom in many regions. Reducing the persistently high mortality of snakebite envenoming requires both novel scientific approaches and partnerships that extend beyond traditional disciplinary and funding silos. This article describes the collaboration between Ophirex, a Public Benefit Corporation developing the oral secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) inhibitor varespladib, and the United States military, which has identified a capability gap in snakebite treatment for forward-deployed personnel. The partnership was driven by a shared requirement for a shelf-stable, easy-to-administer, snake-species-agnostic therapy suitable for use prior to definitive medical care. A central insight of the program was that military operational requirements and global public health needs converged around the same product characteristics, enabling a strategically aligned development effort. From early proof-of-concept studies through regulatory pathway definition and advanced development, the Military–Ophirex partnership integrated operational requirements, regulatory planning, and iterative risk mitigation to advance manufacturing, nonclinical, and clinical development. This work provides both practical insights into complex drug development and a case study in how structured partnerships can carry innovation through translation in underfunded and operationally challenging conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collaborative Approaches to Mitigation of Snakebite Envenoming)

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30 pages, 1564 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Community Engagement Approach to Snakebite Prevention in Rural Uganda: Exploring Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices

by Kevin Arbuckle, Yowasi Byaruhanga, Hazel J. Nichols, Cris M. Kaseke, Francis Mwanguhya and Jessica Mitchell

Toxins 2026, 18(2), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18020078 - 2 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1626

Abstract

Snakebite envenoming is classified as a Neglected Tropical Disease and causes mortality, morbidity, and economic impacts for hundreds of thousands of people per year, particularly in tropical, low- and middle-income countries. Most research on snakebite interventions focuses on improving clinical management rather than bite prevention. However, prevention may provide a better mechanism to minimise snakebite impacts, particularly in rural areas where access to effective medical treatment is limited. This study reports on the preliminary testing phase of a participatory workshop intervention run in rural Uganda in 2022–23, which used a community engagement approach designed to reduce snakebites through discussing snake behaviour and biology. A mixed methods survey and semi-structured interviews were conducted, both with workshop attendees and non-attendees, after the delivery of the workshops. We found that a fearful attitude toward snakes often led to human–snake conflict, with snake killings occurring commonly, and some bites occurring during attempted killings. Workshops appeared to challenge negative attitudes, as understanding snake behaviour seemed to build compassion toward snakes and therefore has the potential to reduce human–snake conflict. Those who attended workshops were more likely to suggest ‘giving snakes space,’ rather than attempting to kill them, and were more likely to suggest hospital treatment if bitten. We also found that many effective methods for snakebite prevention are already known to the community, but those who attended the workshop were aware of a wider range of prevention methods and were more likely to implement less ecologically damaging and more effective strategies. This emphasises that appropriate knowledge resides within the community to prevent snakebites, and so community engagement approaches can improve prevention practices while recognising that the ownership and knowledge for such changes is generated by the local people themselves. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collaborative Approaches to Mitigation of Snakebite Envenoming)

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16 pages, 1029 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Bite to Recovery: Safety and Efficacy of Pan-African Polyvalent Antivenom Used for Treating Snakebites in Cameroon

by Tatiana K. Djikeussi, Vishwas Sovani, Rogacien Kana, Lorraine G. Nekame, Awelsa Benoit, Malama Toussaint, Louabalbe P. Emmanuel, Ngu Hilmann, Baba Souley, Issaka Sali, Yaouba Daoauda, Balkissou A. Dodo, Armelle Messa, Maraimou I. Issa, Sogueba I. Maruis, Arthur Djoumessi, Nathalie Elombo, Gavli Dongoa, Gilbert Keblouabe and Yaoua Z. Aladji

Toxins 2026, 18(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18020059 - 23 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1310

Abstract

Snakebite envenomation (SBE) is a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), particularly in Cameroon. This Phase IV, multicenter, open-label study was conducted from June 2024 to December 2024 to evaluate the safety and efficacy of PANAF-Premium™, a World Health Organization (WHO)-approved polyvalent antivenom that was introduced in Cameroon in 2023, given that prospectively gathered data and studies on this antivenom’s safety in SSA are limited. In total, 130 victims admitted to four district hospitals in North Cameroon with confirmed SBE were included. Data on envenomation syndromes, clinical outcomes, adverse events, and treatment response were recorded. Echis species were responsible for most bites, while clinical syndromes included hemotoxic (68.5%), cytotoxic (30.8%), and neurotoxic (0.8%) presentations. On average, victims required 3.34 vials and 5.55 days for clinical recovery. Early antivenom administration significantly reduced the number of antivenom vials required to manage the symptoms (p = 0.003) and hospital stay (p = 0.049). Seventeen patients experienced mild to moderate adverse events. Two deaths and a case of kidney injury were noted, all unrelated to antivenom use. These study findings indicate the safety and effectiveness of PANAF-Premium™ antivenom, meeting WHO performance targets. The results highlight the importance of timely antivenom administration in treating SBEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collaborative Approaches to Mitigation of Snakebite Envenoming)

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18 pages, 2176 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Venom Proteome and Immunorecognition Profile of Clinically Important Echis carinatus sochureki from Northwestern India Underscores the Need for Regionally Specific Antivenoms

by Akhilesh Kumar, Alka Sahu, Maya Gopalakrishnan, Avni Blotra, Vishal Kumar Rout, Sourish Kuttalam, Shibi Muralidar, Anita Malhotra and Karthikeyan Vasudevan

Toxins 2026, 18(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18010054 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1424

Abstract

The saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus, one of the “Big Four” causes of snakebites in India, is found from Sri Lanka to eastern Iraq. To investigate clinical reports regarding the limited efficacy of Indian polyvalent antivenom (IPAV) against envenomation in Echis carinatus sochureki (ECS) in northwestern India, we obtained 22 snakes from three locations in Rajasthan and identified 148–174 toxin isoforms belonging to 21–25 toxin families in their venom using a bottom-up proteomics approach. All samples showed a high abundance of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), particularly SVMP class III. Other major components were phospholipases A₂, L-amino-acid oxidases, snake venom serine proteases and snaclecs (C-type lectins). Variation in venom composition among locations in Rajasthan, compared to E. c. carinatus (ECC) from southern India, was primarily due to differences in the relative abundance of these toxin families. Recognition of all venom components by IPAV was poor at lower antivenom concentrations. Notably, SVMP classes II and III were poorly recognized at all venom-to-antivenom ratios in all ECS venoms, and a plasma clotting assay revealed poor neutralization of procoagulant activity. This collaborative study highlights the need for the development of regional antivenoms to effectively treat snakebites in northwestern India. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collaborative Approaches to Mitigation of Snakebite Envenoming)

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18 pages, 2634 KB

Open AccessArticle

Micrurus nigrocinctus in Colombia: Integrating Venomics Research, Citizen Science, and Community Empowerment

by Paola Rey-Suárez, Lina Preciado Rojo, Jeisson Gómez-Robles, Sanin Parra-Moreno, Erica Pachon-Camelo, Yirlys Fuentes-Florez, Bruno Lomonte, Julián Fernández, Mahmood Sasa, Vitelbina Núñez and Mónica Saldarriaga-Cordoba

Toxins 2025, 17(6), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17060268 - 27 May 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2960

Abstract

Snakebite is a high-priority neglected tropical disease, and a strategic goal based on four pillars has been recommended to reduce mortality and morbidity. One is empowering rural communities through citizen science, education, and engagement. In this study, an integrative approach was used to expand our knowledge of Micrurus nigrocinctus status and characterize its venom. Using citizen science data and field visits to local communities, 99 records of M. nigrocinctus distributed in Antioquia, Chocó, and Córdoba were obtained. Children, young people, and adults recognized M. nigrocinctus as the most common coral snake species in their region, and two specimens were recovered for venomic and Phylogenetic analyses. The M. nigrocinctus venom from Colombia exhibited similar chromatographic and electrophoretic profiles and biological activities and shared nearly identical protein families with Costa Rica. Commercial coral snake antivenoms also recognized and neutralized the whole venom from both countries. However, phylogenetic relationships showed greater divergence with specimens from Costa Rica. Involving communities helps prevent coral snake bites and facilitates access to rare specimens such as M. nigrocinctus, thereby enabling venom analyses, improving antivenom evaluation, and advancing toxinology research for medically significant species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Collaborative Approaches to Mitigation of Snakebite Envenoming)

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