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Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports

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A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 September 2023) | Viewed by 65922

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Gregory C. Bogdanis

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School of Physical Education and Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Interests: muscle metabolism; muscle fatigue and recovery; muscle damage; oxidative stress; high-intensity interval training; neuromuscular performance; eccentric exercise
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Strength and power training is an integral part of developing and maintaining fitness in all sports, whether at a competitive or recreational level. Irrespective of age, sex and the level of competition, specific types of strength and power training (e.g. core training, plyometric training, eccentric training, use of weightlifting derivatives) are used to promote musculoskeletal health and to improve neuromuscular performance in competition and training.

In this Special Issue of Sports, entitled “Strength and power training in individual and team sports”, we aim to establish a collection of papers that examine the acute or chronic effects of strength and power training on health (e.g., injury prevention) and the neuromuscular system. In addition, we would like to invite research papers that examine the metabolic, cardiorespiratory and immune outcomes of this type of training in individuals performing at all levels and age groups.

We welcome different types of manuscript submissions, including original research articles, systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Potential topics may include, but are not limited to, the effects of different forms of strength and power training (e.g. eccentric, plyometric, variable resistance, weightlifting, core stability) on fitness parameters (e.g. muscle strength, power, rate-of-force development) and sports performance as assessed by sport-specific tests and/or competition/game performance. The age of the individuals may range from children (e.g. gymnasts) to older athletes, and studies on female populations are especially encourngaged due to the limited information in this area of study.

Prof. Dr. Gregory C. Bogdanis
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sports is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

resistance training
strength training
eccentric training
plyometric training
power training
variable resistance training
weightlifting derivatives
core stability training
rate of force development
muscle power
sport performance (track and field, weightlifting, gymnastics, swimming, etc.)
game performance (soccer, basketball, volleyball, etc.)
children, adolescents, younger and older individuals

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of a 6-Week Preseason Training Protocol on Physiological and Muscle Damage Markers in High-Level Female and Male Basketball Players

by Dimitrios Mexis, Tzortzis Nomikos, Nikolaos Mitsopoulos and Nikolaos Kostopoulos

Sports 2023, 11(11), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11110229 - 16 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2681

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 6-week preseason functional and plyometric fitness training protocol, on physiological and biochemical markers of performance and exercise-induced muscle damage, and to compare the response of these markers between high-level female and male basketball players. The sample of the study consisted of 19 professional athletes (10 male; 9 female) competing in two different teams. The examined markers were body mass, BMI, fat percentage, speed, acceleration, explosiveness, vertical jumping ability, creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The preseason training period improved speed, acceleration, explosiveness and vertical jumping ability (~1–8%) and led to significant fat percentage reductions in both groups equivalently. CK and LDH increased similarly in both groups, and the percentage increases were higher for CK compared to LDH. Further investigation and a larger sample size are required in order to determine an approach that is more capable of maximizing performance without causing any possible injuries that may be related to muscle damage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

11 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sex Differences in the Load–Velocity Profiles of Three Different Row Exercises

by Raúl Nieto-Acevedo, Blanca Romero-Moraleda, Almudena Montalvo-Pérez, Carlos García-Sánchez, Moisés Marquina-Nieto and Daniel Mon-López

Sports 2023, 11(11), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11110220 - 9 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2107

Abstract

This study examined the force–velocity profile differences between men and women in three variations of row exercises. Twenty-eight participants (14 men and 14 women) underwent maximum dynamic strength assessments in the free prone bench row (PBR), bent-over barbell row (BBOR), and Smith machine bent-over row (SMBOR) in a randomized order. Subjects performed a progressive loading test from 30 to 100% of 1-RM (repetition maximum), and the mean propulsive velocity was measured in all attempts. Linear regression analyses were conducted to establish the relationships between the different measures of bar velocity and % 1-RM. The ANOVAs applied to the mean velocity achieved in each % 1-RM tested revealed significantly higher velocity values for loads < 65% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to BBOR (p < 0.05) and higher velocities for loads < 90% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to PBR (p < 0.05) for both sexes. Furthermore, men provided significantly higher velocity values than women (PBR 55–100% 1-RM; BBOR and SMBOR < 85% 1-RM; p < 0.05) and significant differences were found between exercises and sex for 30–40% 1-RM. These results confirm that men have higher velocities at different relative loads (i.e., % 1-RM) compared to women during upper-body rowing exercises. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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15 pages, 3354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strength and Conditioning Programs to Increase Bat Swing Velocity for Collegiate Baseball Players

by Ryosuke Haruna, Tatsuo Doi, Daiki Habu, Shinya Yasumoto and Nobuko Hongu

Sports 2023, 11(10), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11100202 - 16 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5094

Abstract

Bat swing velocity (BSV) is an imperative element of a successful baseball hitting performance. This study aimed to investigate the anthropometric and physiological variables associated with BSV and explore strength and conditioning programs to increase BSV in collegiate baseball players. Seventy-eight collegiate baseball players (mean age ± SD, 19.4 ± 1.0 years) participated in this study. Maximum BSV (km/h) was measured using Blast Baseball (Blast Motion Inc., Carlsbad, CA, USA). The anthropometric and physiological variables measured were height, body mass, lean body mass, grip strength, back muscle strength, the 30 m sprint, standing long jump, and backward overhead medicine ball throwing. Analysis using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient showed a weak but significant positive correlation between all anthropometric measurements to BSV. Significant relationships existed between physiological variables of hand grip, back muscle strength, and backward overhead medicine ball throwing, but not the standing long jump and 30 m sprint. These data show that BSV is related to anthropometric and physiological variables, particularly upper and lower body strength and full-body explosive power. Based on the results of this study, we designed examples of sound training programs to increase BSV. Strength and conditioning coaches may want to consider using this information when designing a training program for collegiate baseball players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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14 pages, 653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intra- and Inter-Day Reliability of Inertial Loads with Cluster Sets When Performed during a Quarter Squat on a Flywheel Device

by Shane Ryan, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, Declan Browne, Jeremy A. Moody and Paul J. Byrne

Sports 2023, 11(6), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11060121 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2247

Abstract

The aims of this study were to (i) estimate the intra- and inter-day reliability of mean concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) power at different inertial loads during a flywheel quarter-squat using a cluster set approach and (ii) to determine the acute effect of internal and external attentional focus on mean power when performing the flywheel quarter squat. Twelve collegiate field sport male athletes (age 22.4 ± 3.2 years, weight 81.4 ± 10.3 kg, height 1.81 ± 0.06 m) attended four cluster set testing sessions separated by 7 days. Sessions consisted of 4 sets of 15 repetitions using 4 inertial loads (0.025, 0.050, 0.075, and 0.100 kg·m²). A cluster block consisted of 5 repetitions, including “momentum repetitions” (4 × 5 + 5 + 5). Mean power (MP), CON power, ECC power, and ECC overload were recorded for both internal and external attentional focus groups. The external instructional group attained familiarization after two flywheel sessions (ES = 0.03–0.15) with little volatility between performance measures (CV% = 3.39–9.22). The internal instructional group showed large differences in MP output from session 2 to session 3 for all loads (ES = 0.59–1.25). In conclusion, the flywheel cluster set approach is a reliable training modality for maintaining MP output during all repetitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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9 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exercise-Induced Fatigue Impairs Change of Direction Performance and Serve Precision among Young Male Tennis Players

by Zlatan Bilić, Filip Sinković, Petar Barbaros, Dario Novak and Erika Zemkova

Sports 2023, 11(6), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11060111 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2332

Abstract

This study investigates the effect of exercise-induced fatigue on change of direction performance and serve precision among young tennis players. A group of 21 players (age 12.90 ± 0.76 years), ranked among the top 50 players on the national tennis federation scale and the top 300 on the “Tennis Europe” scale, participated in the study. They underwent a standardized physiological load protocol using the “300-m running test” which consists of consecutive runs for 15 shares of 20 m (15 × 20). Its intensity was determined using the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale where subjects evaluated their level of experienced load on a scale from 0 to 10. Prior to and after the protocol, they performed a pre-planned change of direction T-test and serve precision test. Results showed significant increase of time in the T-test (from 11.75 ± 0.45 s to 12.99 ± 0.4 s, p = 0.00) and decrease in serve precision parameter from (6.00 ± 1.04 to 4.00 ± 1.26, p = 0.00) after the fatigue test protocol. The RPE increased from 5 to 9, after the fatigue protocol, indicating the desired fatigue effect. These findings indicate that exercise-induced fatigue impairs change of direction performance and serve precision among young tennis players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

17 pages, 982 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Does Instability Affect Bench Press Performance? Acute Effect Analysis with Different Loads in Trained and Untrained Populations

by Moisés Marquina, Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo, Carlos García-Sánchez, Alfonso de la Rubia, Jesús Rivilla-García and Amelia Ferro-Sánchez

Sports 2023, 11(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11030067 - 13 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2855

Abstract

(I) The execution of different sports involves a significant number of throws, jumps, or direction changes, so the body must be as stable as possible while performing a specific action. However, there is no classification of unstable devices and their influence on performance variables. Furthermore, the effect on athletes’ experience using instability is unknown. (II) The aim of this study was to analyze the power and speed parameters in bench press with different loads and unstable executions: (1) stable (SB), (2) with asymmetric load (AB), (3) with unstable load (UB), (4) on fitball (FB) and (5) on a Bosu^® (BB). A total of 30 male participants (15 trained and 15 untrained) were evaluated for mean propulsive speed (MPS), maximum speed (MS), and power (PW) with different types of external load: a low load (40% of 1RM), medium load (60% of 1RM), and high load (80% of 1RM) in each condition. Variables were measured with an inertial dynamometer. (III) The best data were evidenced with SB, followed by AB (3–12%), UB (4–11%), FB (7–19%), and BB (14–23%). There were no differences between groups and loads (p > 0.05) except in the case of MS with 60% 1RM, where trained participants obtained 4% better data (p < 0.05). (IV) Executions with implements and equipment such as fitball and Bosu^® do not seem to be the most recommended when the objective is to improve power or execution speed. However, situations where the load is unstable (AB and UB) seem to be a good alternative to improve stabilization work without high performance. Furthermore, experience does not seem to be a determining factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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10 pages, 735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Concurrent High-Intensity and Strength Training on Muscle Power and Aerobic Performance in Young Soccer Players during the Pre-Season

by Pierros Thomakos, Konstantinos Spyrou, Christos Katsikas, Nikolaos D. Geladas and Gregory C. Bogdanis

Sports 2023, 11(3), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11030059 - 6 Mar 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5496

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to evaluate two different intervention programs applied during a 4-week pre-season period. Twenty-nine players participated in this study and were divided into two groups. One group (Ball_Train, n = 12, age: 17.8 ± 0.4 years, body mass: 73.9 ± 7.6 kg, height: 178 ± 0.1 cm, body fat: 9.6 ± 5.3%) performed a higher percentage of aerobic training with ball and strength training using plyometrics and exercises with body weight. The other group (HIIT_Train, n = 17, age: 17.8 ± 0.7 years, body mass: 73.3 ± 5.0 kg, height: 179 ± 0.1 cm, body fat: 8.0 ± 2.3%) trained with high-intensity interval training (HIIT) without the ball and performed resistance training with weights in the same session. Both groups trained for strength (two times/week) and performed aerobic–anaerobic fitness without the ball, passing games, and tactical and small-sided games. Lower limb power (CMJ) and aerobic fitness (Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1-IR1) were evaluated before and after the four-week training program. Yo-Yo IR1 performance was improved in both groups, but the improvement was greater for the HIIT_Train than Ball_Train group (468 ± 180 vs. 183 ± 177 m, p = 0.07). CMJ showed a non-significant improvement in the Ball_Train group (5.8 ± 8.8%, p = 0.16), but it decreased by 8.1 ± 9% (p = 0.001), in the HIIT_Train group. In conclusion, we have shown that a short pre-season period of training results in improvements in aerobic fitness in both groups, with high-intensity interval training showing superior adaptations than training with the ball. However, CMJ performance was reduced in this group, possibly suggesting higher fatigue levels and overload, and/or showing the effects of concurrent HIIT_Train and strength training in soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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12 pages, 1638 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Propulsion Phase Characteristics of Loaded Jump Variations in Resistance-Trained Women

by Timothy J. Suchomel, Shana M. McKeever, Olusegun Sijuwade and Logan Carpenter

Sports 2023, 11(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11020044 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3235

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare the propulsion phase characteristics of the jump squat (JS), hexagonal barbell jump (HEXJ), and jump shrug (JShrug) performed across a spectrum of relative loads. Thirteen resistance-trained women (18–23 years old) performed JS, HEXJ, and JShrug repetitions at body mass (BM) or with 20, 40, 60, 80, or 100% BM during three separate testing sessions. Propulsion mean force (MF), duration (Dur), peak power output (PP), force at PP (F_PP), and velocity at PP (V_PP) were compared between exercises and loads using a series of 3 × 6 repeated measures ANOVA and Hedge’s g effect sizes. There were no significant differences in MF or Dur between exercises. While load-averaged HEXJ and JShrug PP were significantly greater than the JS, there were no significant differences between exercises at any individual load. The JShrug produced significantly greater F_PP than the JS and HEXJ at loads ranging from BM–60% BM, but not at 80 or 100% BM. Load-averaged V_PP produced during the JS and HEXJ was significantly greater than the JShrug; however, there were no significant differences between exercises at any individual load. Practically meaningful differences between exercises indicated that the JShrug produced greater magnitudes of force during shorter durations compared to the JS and HEXJ at light loads (BM–40%). The JS and HEXJ may be classified as more velocity-dominant exercises while the JShrug may be more force-dominant. Thus, it is important to consider the context in which each exercise is prescribed for resistance-trained women to provide an effective training stimulus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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Review

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29 pages, 2024 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Acute and Chronic Effects of Resistance and Aerobic Exercise in Hemostatic Balance: A Brief Review

by Apostolos Z. Skouras, Dimitrios Antonakis-Karamintzas, Andreas G. Tsantes, Athanasios Triantafyllou, Georgios Papagiannis, Charilaos Tsolakis and Panagiotis Koulouvaris

Sports 2023, 11(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040074 - 27 Mar 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 12723

Abstract

Hemostatic balance refers to the dynamic balance between blood clot formation (coagulation), blood clot dissolution (fibrinolysis), anticoagulation, and innate immunity. Although regular habitual exercise may lower the incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) by improving an individual’s hemostatic profile at rest and during exertion, vigorous exercise may increase the risk of sudden cardiac death and venous thromboembolism (VTE). This literature review aims to investigate the hemostatic system’s acute and chronic adaptive responses to different types of exercise in healthy and patient populations. Compared to athletes, sedentary healthy individuals demonstrate similar post-exercise responses in platelet function and coagulatory and fibrinolytic potential. However, hemostatic adaptations of patients with chronic diseases in regular training is a promising field. Despite the increased risk of thrombotic events during an acute bout of vigorous exercise, regular exposure to high-intensity exercise might desensitize exercise-induced platelet aggregation, moderate coagulatory parameters, and up-regulate fibrinolytic potential via increasing tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and decreasing plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) response. Future research might focus on combining different types of exercise, manipulating each training characteristic (frequency, intensity, time, and volume), or investigating the minimal exercise dosage required to maintain hemostatic balance, especially in patients with various health conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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17 pages, 813 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Plyometric-Jump Training on the Physical Fitness of Combat Sport Athletes

by Alex Ojeda-Aravena, Tomás Herrera-Valenzuela, Pablo Valdés-Badilla, Eduardo Báez-San Martín, Rohit K. Thapa and Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo

Sports 2023, 11(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11020033 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8013

Abstract

We aimed to assess the athletic performance changes in combat sport athletes (CoSAs) after plyometric-jump training (PJT), compared to control conditions, through a systematic review with meta-analysis. Following PRISMA guidelines, three electronic databases were searched for includable articles, according to a PICOS approach. Using a random-effects model, Hedges’ g effects sizes (ES) were calculated. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² statistic, with values of <25%, 25–75%, and >75% representing low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively. Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach. Twelve eligible articles were identified for systematic review, seven of high quality and five of moderate quality, according to the PEDro scale. The studies recruited taekwondo, silat, wrestling, judo, fencing, and karate athletes (292 total participants), including specific–active and active controls. Most participants had a mean age of <18 years and were males (n = 225). Compared to the control, PJT programmes, involving 4–12 weeks and 2–3 sessions per week, induced small to moderate improvements (ES = 0.47 to 1.04) in athletes’ maximal strength (e.g., 1RM squat), vertical jump height, change-of-direction speed, and specific performance (e.g., fencing movement velocity), although without meaningful effects on body mass, fat mass, and muscle mass (ES = 0.02 to −0.06). Most (7 of 8) outcomes attained low heterogeneity. The outcome-level GRADE analysis indicated a certainty of evidence from low to moderate. In conclusion, PJT, when compared to control conditions, may improve CoSA athletic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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16 pages, 340 KiB

Open AccessReview

Resistance Exercise for Improving Running Economy and Running Biomechanics and Decreasing Running-Related Injury Risk: A Narrative Review

by Anja Šuc, Pija Šarko, Jernej Pleša and Žiga Kozinc

Sports 2022, 10(7), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10070098 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 13118

Abstract

It is well-accepted that at least a certain amount of resistance exercise (RE) is recommended for most endurance athletes. In this review, we aim to summarize the evidence regarding the effects of RE on running economy, running biomechanics, and running-related injury risk in endurance runners. The evidence robustly shows that lower limb RE is effective for improving running economy and performance, with a combination of strength and plyometric training being recommended to improve RE. Isometric training is also emerging as a possible alternative to implement during periods of high overall training load. Lower limb RE may change some aspects of joint kinematics during running; however, the evidence regarding the effects on kinetics is limited. Lower limb RE may help reduce running-related injury risk, but further evidence is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

Other

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21 pages, 703 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

A Systematic Review of Dynamic, Kinematic, and Muscle Activity during Gymnastic Still Rings Elements

by Roman Malíř, Jan Chrudimský, Michal Šteffl and Petr Stastny

Sports 2023, 11(3), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11030050 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3391

Abstract

Still rings are a unique gymnastics apparatus allowing for a combination of dynamic and static elements in a specific technique. This review aimed to compile the dynamic, kinematic, and EMG characteristics of swing, dismount, handstand, strength, and hold elements on still rings. This systematic review was conducted in concordance with PRISMA in PubMed, EBSCOhost, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. In total, 37 studies were included, describing the strength and hold elements, the kip and swing elements, swing through or to handstand, and dismounts. The current evidence suggests that the execution of gymnastics elements on still rings and training drills requires a high training load. Specific preconditioning exercises could be used to train for the Swallow, iron cross, and support scale. Negative impacts of load during hold elements can be reduced by special support devices such as the Herdos or support belts. Another aspect is improving strength prerequisites by exercises such as bench presses, barbell exercises, and support belts, where the main focus should be on muscular coordination similar to the other considerable elements. Electromyography is an appropriate tool for the investigation of muscular coordination and force platforms for assessing a sufficient strength level to successfully perform elements on still rings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Power Training in Individual and Team Sports)

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