Sensors

2024

Jump to: 2023, 2022, 2021

26 pages, 1093 KB

Open AccessReview

Trustworthy Localization in IoT Networks: A Survey of Localization Techniques, Threats, and Mitigation

by Giovanni Pettorru, Virginia Pilloni and Marco Martalò

Sensors 2024, 24(7), 2214; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24072214 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4209

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) has revolutionized the world, connecting billions of devices that offer assistance in various aspects of users’ daily lives. Context-aware IoT applications exploit real-time environmental, user-specific, or situational data to dynamically adapt to users’ needs, offering tailored experiences. In [...] Read more.

The Internet of Things (IoT) has revolutionized the world, connecting billions of devices that offer assistance in various aspects of users’ daily lives. Context-aware IoT applications exploit real-time environmental, user-specific, or situational data to dynamically adapt to users’ needs, offering tailored experiences. In particular, Location-Based Services (LBS) exploit geographical information to adapt to environmental settings or provide recommendations based on users’ and nodes’ positions, thus delivering efficient and personalized services. To this end, there is growing interest in developing IoT localization systems within the scientific community. In addition, due to the sensitivity and privacy inherent to precise location information, LBS introduce new security challenges. To ensure a more secure and trustworthy system, researchers are studying how to prevent vulnerabilities and mitigate risks from the early design stages of LBS-empowered IoT applications. The goal of this study is to carry out an in-depth examination of localization techniques for IoT, with an emphasis on both the signal-processing design and security aspects. The investigation focuses primarily on active radio localization techniques, classifying them into range-based and range-free algorithms, while also exploring hybrid approaches. Next, security considerations are explored in depth, examining the main attacks for each localization technique and linking them to the most interesting solutions proposed in the literature. By highlighting advances, analyzing challenges, and providing solutions, the survey aims to guide researchers in navigating the complex IoT localization landscape. Full article

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18 pages, 13969 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Internet of Things Remote Desktop Protocol for Low-Bandwidth Environments Using Convolutional Neural Networks

by Hejun Wang, Kai Deng, Guoxin Zhong, Yubing Duan, Mingyong Yin, Fanzhi Meng and Yulong Wang

Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1208; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041208 - 14 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1694

Abstract

This paper discusses optimizing desktop image quality and bandwidth consumption in remote IoT GUI desktop scenarios. Remote desktop tools, which are crucial for work efficiency, typically employ image compression techniques to manage bandwidth. Although JPEG is widely used for its efficiency in eliminating [...] Read more.

This paper discusses optimizing desktop image quality and bandwidth consumption in remote IoT GUI desktop scenarios. Remote desktop tools, which are crucial for work efficiency, typically employ image compression techniques to manage bandwidth. Although JPEG is widely used for its efficiency in eliminating redundancy, it can introduce quality loss with increased compression. Recently, deep learning-based compression techniques have emerged, challenging traditional methods like JPEG. This study introduces an optimized RFB (Remote Frame Buffer) protocol based on a convolutional neural network (CNN) image compression algorithm, focusing on human visual perception in desktop image processing. The improved RFB protocol proposed in this paper, compared to the unoptimized RFB protocol, can save 30–80% of bandwidth consumption and enhances remote desktop image quality, as evidenced by improved PSNR and MS-SSIM values between the remote desktop image and the original image, thus providing superior desktop image transmission quality. Full article

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20 pages, 12695 KB

Open AccessArticle

IIoT Low-Cost ZigBee-Based WSN Implementation for Enhanced Production Efficiency in a Solar Protection Curtains Manufacturing Workshop

by Hicham Klaina, Imanol Picallo, Peio Lopez-Iturri, Aitor Biurrun, Ana V. Alejos, Leyre Azpilicueta, Abián B. Socorro-Leránoz and Francisco Falcone

Sensors 2024, 24(2), 712; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020712 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2438

Abstract

Nowadays, the Industry 4.0 concept and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) are considered essential for the implementation of automated manufacturing processes across various industrial settings. In this regard, wireless sensor networks (WSN) are crucial due to their inherent mobility, easy deployment and [...] Read more.

Nowadays, the Industry 4.0 concept and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) are considered essential for the implementation of automated manufacturing processes across various industrial settings. In this regard, wireless sensor networks (WSN) are crucial due to their inherent mobility, easy deployment and maintenance, scalability, and low power consumption, among other benefits. In this context, the presented paper proposes an optimized and low-cost WSN based on ZigBee communication technology for the monitoring of a real manufacturing facility. The company designs and manufactures solar protection curtains and aims to integrate the deployed WSN into the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system in order to optimize their production processes and enhance production efficiency and cost estimation capabilities. To achieve this, radio propagation measurements and 3D ray launching simulations were conducted to characterize the wireless channel behavior and facilitate the development of an optimized WSN system that can operate in the complex industrial environment presented and validated through on-site wireless channel measurements, as well as interference analysis. Then, a low-cost WSN was implemented and deployed to acquire real-time data from different machinery and workstations, which will be integrated into the ERP system. Multiple data streams have been collected and processed from the shop floor of the factory by means of the prototype wireless nodes implemented. This integration will enable the company to optimize its production processes, fabricate products more efficiently, and enhance its cost estimation capabilities. Moreover, the proposed system provides a scalable platform, enabling the integration of new sensors as well as information processing capabilities. Full article

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2023

Jump to: 2024, 2022, 2021

47 pages, 889 KB

Open AccessReview

From Corrective to Predictive Maintenance—A Review of Maintenance Approaches for the Power Industry

by Marek Molęda, Bożena Małysiak-Mrozek, Weiping Ding, Vaidy Sunderam and Dariusz Mrozek

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 5970; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135970 - 27 Jun 2023

Cited by 122 | Viewed by 31540

Abstract

Appropriate maintenance of industrial equipment keeps production systems in good health and ensures the stability of production processes. In specific production sectors, such as the electrical power industry, equipment failures are rare but may lead to high costs and substantial economic losses not [...] Read more.

Appropriate maintenance of industrial equipment keeps production systems in good health and ensures the stability of production processes. In specific production sectors, such as the electrical power industry, equipment failures are rare but may lead to high costs and substantial economic losses not only for the power plant but for consumers and the larger society. Therefore, the power production industry relies on a variety of approaches to maintenance tasks, ranging from traditional solutions and engineering know-how to smart, AI-based analytics to avoid potential downtimes. This review shows the evolution of maintenance approaches to support maintenance planning, equipment monitoring and supervision. We present older techniques traditionally used in maintenance tasks and those that rely on IT analytics to automate tasks and perform the inference process for failure detection. We analyze prognostics and health-management techniques in detail, including their requirements, advantages and limitations. The review focuses on the power-generation sector. However, some of the issues addressed are common to other industries. The article also presents concepts and solutions that utilize emerging technologies related to Industry 4.0, touching on prescriptive analysis, Big Data and the Internet of Things. The primary motivation and purpose of the article are to present the existing practices and classic methods used by engineers, as well as modern approaches drawing from Artificial Intelligence and the concept of Industry 4.0. The summary of existing practices and the state of the art in the area of predictive maintenance provides two benefits. On the one hand, it leads to improving processes by matching existing tools and methods. On the other hand, it shows researchers potential directions for further analysis and new developments. Full article

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16 pages, 2050 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Security in ZigBee Wireless Sensor Networks: A New Approach and Mutual Authentication Scheme for D2D Communication

by Alaa Allakany, Abeer Saber, Samih M. Mostafa, Maazen Alsabaan, Mohamed I. Ibrahem and Haitham Elwahsh

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5703; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125703 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4911

Abstract

The latest version of ZigBee offers improvements in various aspects, including its low power consumption, flexibility, and cost-effective deployment. However, the challenges persist, as the upgraded protocol continues to suffer from a wide range of security weaknesses. Constrained wireless sensor network devices cannot [...] Read more.

The latest version of ZigBee offers improvements in various aspects, including its low power consumption, flexibility, and cost-effective deployment. However, the challenges persist, as the upgraded protocol continues to suffer from a wide range of security weaknesses. Constrained wireless sensor network devices cannot use standard security protocols such as asymmetric cryptography mechanisms, which are resource-intensive and unsuitable for wireless sensor networks. ZigBee uses the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), which is the best recommended symmetric key block cipher for securing data of sensitive networks and applications. However, AES is expected to be vulnerable to some attacks in the near future. Moreover, symmetric cryptosystems have key management and authentication issues. To address these concerns in wireless sensor networks, particularly in ZigBee communications, in this paper, we propose a mutual authentication scheme that can dynamically update the secret key value of device-to-trust center (D2TC) and device-to-device (D2D) communications. In addition, the suggested solution improves the cryptographic strength of ZigBee communications by improving the encryption process of a regular AES without the need for asymmetric cryptography. To achieve that, we use a secure one-way hash function operation when D2TC and D2D mutually authenticate each other, along with bitwise exclusive OR operations to enhance cryptography. Once authentication is accomplished, the ZigBee-based participants can mutually agree upon a shared session key and exchange a secure value. This secure value is then integrated with the sensed data from the devices and utilized as input for regular AES encryption. By adopting this technique, the encrypted data gains robust protection against potential cryptanalysis attacks. Finally, a comparative analysis is conducted to illustrate how the proposed scheme effectively maintains efficiency in comparison to eight competitive schemes. This analysis evaluates the scheme’s performance across various factors, including security features, communication, and computational cost. Full article

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20 pages, 8322 KB

Open AccessArticle

Charging Protocol for Partially Rechargeable Mobile Sensor Networks

by Li-Ling Hung

Sensors 2023, 23(7), 3438; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073438 - 24 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1620

Abstract

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have wide applicability in services used in daily life. However, for such networks, limited energy is a critical issue. The efficiency of a deployed sensor network may be subject to energy supply. Wireless rechargeable sensor networks have recently been [...] Read more.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have wide applicability in services used in daily life. However, for such networks, limited energy is a critical issue. The efficiency of a deployed sensor network may be subject to energy supply. Wireless rechargeable sensor networks have recently been proposed and discussed. Most related studies have involved applying static rechargeable sensors to an entire rechargeable environment or having mobile chargers patrol the environment to charge sensors within it. For partially rechargeable environments, improving the recharge efficiency and extending the lifetime of WSNs are considerable challenges. Scientists have devoted attention to energy transmission technologies and mobile sensor network (MSN) applications. In this paper, we propose a flexible charging protocol in which energy can be transmitted from certain energy supply regions to other regions in an MSN. Mobile rechargeable sensors are deployed to monitor the environment. To share energy in a certain region, the sensors move to replenish their energy and transmit energy to sensors outside the energy supply region. The efficiency of the proposed protocol is also discussed in the context of various situations. The evaluation results suggest that the flexible protocol is more efficient than other charging protocols in several situations. Full article

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26 pages, 27778 KB

Open AccessArticle

Home Chimney Pinwheels (HCP) as Steh and Remote Monitoring for Smart Building IoT and WSN Applications

by Ajibike Eunice Akin-Ponnle, Paulo Capitão, Ricardo Torres and Nuno Borges Carvalho

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2858; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052858 - 6 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3477

Abstract

Smart, and ultra-low energy consuming Internet of Things (IoTs), wireless sensor networks (WSN), and autonomous devices are being deployed to smart buildings and cities, which require continuous power supply, whereas battery usage has accompanying environmental problems, coupled with additional maintenance cost. We present [...] Read more.

Smart, and ultra-low energy consuming Internet of Things (IoTs), wireless sensor networks (WSN), and autonomous devices are being deployed to smart buildings and cities, which require continuous power supply, whereas battery usage has accompanying environmental problems, coupled with additional maintenance cost. We present Home Chimney Pinwheels (HCP) as the Smart Turbine Energy Harvester (STEH) for wind; and Cloud-based remote monitoring of its output data. The HCP commonly serves as an external cap to home chimney exhaust outlets; they have very low inertia to wind; and are available on the rooftops of some buildings. Here, an electromagnetic converter adapted from a brushless DC motor was mechanically fastened to the circular base of an 18-blade HCP. In simulated wind, and rooftop experiments, an output voltage of 0.3 V to 16 V was realised for a wind speed between 0.6 to 16 km/h. This is sufficient to operate low-power IoT devices deployed around a smart city. The harvester was connected to a power management unit and its output data was remotely monitored via the IoT analytic Cloud platform “ThingSpeak” by means of LoRa transceivers, serving as sensors; while also obtaining supply from the harvester. The HCP can be a battery-less “stand-alone” low-cost STEH, with no grid connection, and can be installed as attachments to IoT or wireless sensors nodes in smart buildings and cities. Full article

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2022

Jump to: 2024, 2023, 2021

28 pages, 15910 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Assessment and Deployment of an Efficient Golf Game Dynamics Management System Based on Flexible Wireless Technologies

by Imanol Picallo, Erik Aguirre, Peio Lopez-Iturri, Javier Guembe, Eduardo Olariaga, Hicham Klaina, Jose Antonio Marcotegui and Francisco Falcone

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010047 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2647

Abstract

The practice of sports has been steadily evolving, taking advantage of different technological tools to improve different aspects such as individual/collective training, support in match development or enhancement of audience experience. In this work, an in-house implemented monitoring system for golf training and [...] Read more.

The practice of sports has been steadily evolving, taking advantage of different technological tools to improve different aspects such as individual/collective training, support in match development or enhancement of audience experience. In this work, an in-house implemented monitoring system for golf training and competition is developed, composed of a set of distributed end devices, gateways and routers, connected to a web-based platform for data analysis, extraction and visualization. Extensive wireless channel analysis has been performed, by means of deterministic 3D radio channel estimations and radio frequency measurements, to provide coverage/capacity estimations for the specific use case of golf courses. The monitoring system has been fully designed considering communication as well as energy constraints, including wireless power transfer (WPT) capabilities in order to provide flexible node deployment. System validation has been performed in a real golf course, validating end-to-end connectivity and information handling to improve overall user experience. Full article

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11 pages, 629 KB

Open AccessArticle

Homomorphic Asymmetric Encryption Applied to the Analysis of IoT Communications

by Juan Luis López Delgado, José Antonio Álvarez Bermejo and Juan Antonio López Ramos

Sensors 2022, 22(20), 8022; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22208022 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2936

Abstract

In this paper, we describe the use of homomorphic encryption techniques in order to not only ensure the data are transmitted in a confidential way, but also to use the encrypted data to provide the manager with statistics that allow them to detect [...] Read more.

In this paper, we describe the use of homomorphic encryption techniques in order to not only ensure the data are transmitted in a confidential way, but also to use the encrypted data to provide the manager with statistics that allow them to detect the incorrect functioning of a sensor node or a group of sensors due to either malicious data injection, data transmission, or simply sensor damage (miscalibration, faulty sensor functioning). Obtaining these statistical values does not need decryption, so the process is sped up and can be developed in real time. Operating the data in this way ensures privacy and removes the need to maintain a shared key infrastructure between the sensor nodes and the manager nodes that are part of the blockchain infrastructure. In this work, we focus on operations with the sensor nodes that provide data that will be, later, treated as part of the business logic in the agribusiness sector (for example), hence the importance of having fast checking mechanisms in terms of data quality. The results obtained on conventional configurations of sensor nodes encourage the use of this technique in the aforementioned infrastructure. Full article

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21 pages, 3908 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Graph Routing Algorithm of Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks Using the Covariance-Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy

by Nouf Alharbi, Lewis Mackenzie and Dimitrios Pezaros

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7462; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197462 - 1 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3024

Abstract

The emergence of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has accelerated the adoption of Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks (IWSNs) for numerous applications. Effective communication in such applications requires reduced end-to-end transmission time, balanced energy consumption and increased communication reliability. Graph routing, the main [...] Read more.

The emergence of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has accelerated the adoption of Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks (IWSNs) for numerous applications. Effective communication in such applications requires reduced end-to-end transmission time, balanced energy consumption and increased communication reliability. Graph routing, the main routing method in IWSNs, has a significant impact on achieving effective communication in terms of satisfying these requirements. Graph routing algorithms involve applying the first-path available approach and using path redundancy to transmit data packets from a source sensor node to the gateway. However, this approach can affect end-to-end transmission time by creating conflicts among transmissions involving a common sensor node and promoting imbalanced energy consumption due to centralised management. The characteristics and requirements of these networks encounter further complications due to the need to find the best path on the basis of the requirements of IWSNs to overcome these challenges rather than using the available first-path. Such a requirement affects the network performance and prolongs the network lifetime. To address this problem, we adopt a Covariance-Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES) to create and select the graph paths. Firstly, this article proposes three best single-objective graph routing paths according to the IWSN requirements that this research focused on. The sensor nodes select best paths based on three objective functions of CMA-ES: the best Path based on Distance (PODis), the best Path based on residual Energy (POEng) and the best Path based on End-to-End transmission time (POE2E). Secondly, to enhance energy consumption balance and achieve a balance among IWSN requirements, we adapt the CMA-ES to select the best path with multiple-objectives, otherwise known as the Best Path of Graph Routing with a CMA-ES (BPGR-ES). A simulation using MATALB with different configurations and parameters is applied to evaluate the enhanced graph routing algorithms. Furthermore, the performance of PODis, POEng, POE2E and BPGR-ES is compared with existing state-of-the-art graph routing algorithms. The simulation results reveal that the BPGR-ES algorithm achieved 87.53% more balanced energy consumption among sensor nodes in the network compared to other algorithms, and the delivery of data packets of BPGR-ES reached 99.86%, indicating more reliable communication. Full article

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24 pages, 831 KB

Open AccessArticle

PUFTAP-IoT: PUF-Based Three-Factor Authentication Protocol in IoT Environment Focused on Sensing Devices

by JoonYoung Lee, JiHyeon Oh, DeokKyu Kwon, MyeongHyun Kim, SungJin Yu, Nam-Su Jho and Youngho Park

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 7075; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22187075 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3813

Abstract

In IoT-based environments, smart services can be provided to users under various environments, such as smart homes, smart factories, smart cities, smart transportation, and healthcare, by utilizing sensing devices. Nevertheless, a series of security problems may arise because of the nature of the [...] Read more.

In IoT-based environments, smart services can be provided to users under various environments, such as smart homes, smart factories, smart cities, smart transportation, and healthcare, by utilizing sensing devices. Nevertheless, a series of security problems may arise because of the nature of the wireless channel in the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) for utilizing IoT services. Authentication and key agreements are essential elements for providing secure services in WSNs. Accordingly, two-factor and three-factor-based authentication protocol research is being actively conducted. However, IoT service users can be vulnerable to ID/password pair guessing attacks by setting easy-to-remember identities and passwords. In addition, sensors and sensing devices deployed in IoT environments are vulnerable to capture attacks. To address this issue, in this paper, we analyze the protocols of Chunka et al., Amintoosi et al., and Hajian et al. and describe their security vulnerabilities. Moreover, this paper introduces PUF and honey list techniques with three-factor authentication to design protocols resistant to ID/password pair guessing, brute-force, and capture attacks. Accordingly, we introduce PUFTAP-IoT, which can provide secure services in the IoT environment. To prove the security of PUFTAP-IoT, we perform formal analyses through Burrows Abadi Needham (BAN) logic, Real-Or-Random (ROR) model, and scyther simulation tools. In addition, we demonstrate the efficiency of the protocol compared with other authentication protocols in terms of security, computational cost, and communication cost, showing that it can provide secure services in IoT environments. Full article

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16 pages, 382 KB

Open AccessArticle

UAV Enhanced Target-Barrier Coverage Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks Based on Reinforcement Learning

by Li Li and Hongbin Chen

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6381; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176381 - 24 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2576

Abstract

Target-barrier coverage is a newly proposed coverage problem in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The target-barrier is a closed barrier with a distance constraint from the target, which can detect intrusions from outside. In some applications, detecting intrusions from outside and monitoring the targets [...] Read more.

Target-barrier coverage is a newly proposed coverage problem in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The target-barrier is a closed barrier with a distance constraint from the target, which can detect intrusions from outside. In some applications, detecting intrusions from outside and monitoring the targets inside the barrier is necessary. However, due to the distance constraint, the target-barrier fails to monitor and detect the target breaching from inside in a timely manner. In this paper, we propose a convex hull attraction (CHA) algorithm to construct the target-barrier and a UAV-enhanced coverage (QUEC) algorithm based on reinforcement learning to cover targets. The CHA algorithm first divides the targets into clusters, then constructs the target-barrier for the outermost targets of the clusters, and the redundant sensors replace the failed sensors. Finally, the UAV’s path is planned based on QUEC. The UAV always covers the target, which is most likely to breach. The simulation results show that, compared with the target-barrier construction algorithm (TBC) and the virtual force algorithm (VFA), CHA can reduce the number of sensors required to construct the target-barrier and extend the target-barrier lifetime. Compared with the traveling salesman problem (TSP), QUEC can reduce the UAV’s coverage completion time, improve the energy efficiency of UAV and the efficiency of detecting targets breaching from inside. Full article

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26 pages, 5029 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Interannual Rainfall Runoff Equation Derived from Ol’Dekop’s Model Using Artificial Neural Networks

by Omar Mimeche, Amir Aieb, Antonio Liotta and Khodir Madani

Sensors 2022, 22(12), 4349; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22124349 - 8 Jun 2022

Viewed by 2851

Abstract

In water resources management, modeling water balance factors is necessary to control dams, agriculture, irrigation, and also to provide water supply for drinking and industries. Generally, conceptual and physical models present challenges to find more hydro-climatic parameters, which show good performance in the [...] Read more.

In water resources management, modeling water balance factors is necessary to control dams, agriculture, irrigation, and also to provide water supply for drinking and industries. Generally, conceptual and physical models present challenges to find more hydro-climatic parameters, which show good performance in the assessment of runoff in different climatic regions. Accordingly, a dynamic and reliable model is proposed to estimate inter-annual rainfall-runoff in five climatic regions of northern Algeria. This is a new improvement of Ol’Dekop’s equation, which models the residual values obtained between real and predicted data using artificial neuron networks (ANN_s), namely by ANN₁ and ANN₂ sub-models. In this work, a set of climatic and geographical variables, obtained from 16 basins, which are inter-annual rainfall (IAR), watershed area (S), and watercourse (WC), were used as input data in the first model. Further, the ANN₁ output results and De Martonne index (I) were classified, and were then processed by ANN₂ to further increase reliability, and make the model more dynamic and unaffected by the climatic characteristic of the area. The final model proved the best performance in the entire region compared to a set of parametric and non-parametric water balance models used in this study, where the R²_Adj obtained from each test gave values between 0.9103 and 0.9923. Full article

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30 pages, 3142 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Survey on the Internet of Things with the Industrial Marketplace

by Kazhan Othman Mohammed Salih, Tarik A. Rashid, Dalibor Radovanovic and Nebojsa Bacanin

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22030730 - 19 Jan 2022

Cited by 90 | Viewed by 16781

Abstract

There is no doubt that new technology has become one of the crucial parts of most people’s lives around the world. By and large, in this era, the Internet and the Internet of Things (IoT) have become the most indispensable parts of our [...] Read more.

There is no doubt that new technology has become one of the crucial parts of most people’s lives around the world. By and large, in this era, the Internet and the Internet of Things (IoT) have become the most indispensable parts of our lives. Recently, IoT technologies have been regarded as the most broadly used tools among other technologies. The tools and the facilities of IoT technologies within the marketplace are part of Industry 4.0. The marketplace is too regarded as a new area that can be used with IoT technologies. One of the main purposes of this paper is to highlight using IoT technologies in Industry 4.0, and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is another feature revised. This paper focuses on the value of the IoT in the industrial domain in general; it reviews the IoT and focuses on its benefits and drawbacks, and presents some of the IoT applications, such as in transportation and healthcare. In addition, the trends and facts that are related to the IoT technologies on the marketplace are reviewed. Finally, the role of IoT in telemedicine and healthcare and the benefits of IoT technologies for COVID-19 are presented as well. Full article

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15 pages, 1490 KB

Open AccessArticle

TrackInk: An IoT-Enabled Real-Time Object Tracking System in Space

by Cameron Aume, Keith Andrews, Shantanu Pal, Alice James, Avishkar Seth and Subhas Mukhopadhyay

Sensors 2022, 22(2), 608; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020608 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6294

Abstract

Nowadays, there is tremendous growth in the Internet of Things (IoT) applications in our everyday lives. The proliferation of smart devices, sensors technology, and the Internet makes it possible to communicate between the digital and physical world seamlessly for distributed data collection, communication, [...] Read more.

Nowadays, there is tremendous growth in the Internet of Things (IoT) applications in our everyday lives. The proliferation of smart devices, sensors technology, and the Internet makes it possible to communicate between the digital and physical world seamlessly for distributed data collection, communication, and processing of several applications dynamically. However, it is a challenging task to monitor and track objects in real-time due to the distinct characteristics of the IoT system, e.g., scalability, mobility, and resource-limited nature of the devices. In this paper, we address the significant issue of IoT object tracking in real time. We propose a system called ‘TrackInk’ to demonstrate our idea. TrackInk will be capable of pointing toward and taking pictures of visible satellites in the night sky, including but not limited to the International Space Station (ISS) or the moon. Data will be collected from sensors to determine the system’s geographical location along with its 3D orientation, allowing for the system to be moved. Additionally, TrackInk will communicate with and send data to ThingSpeak for further cloud-based systems and data analysis. Our proposed system is lightweight, highly scalable, and performs efficiently in a resource-limited environment. We discuss a detailed system’s architecture and show the performance results using a real-world hardware-based experimental setup. Full article

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45 pages, 6218 KB

Open AccessReview

Federated Learning in Edge Computing: A Systematic Survey

by Haftay Gebreslasie Abreha, Mohammad Hayajneh and Mohamed Adel Serhani

Sensors 2022, 22(2), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020450 - 7 Jan 2022

Cited by 239 | Viewed by 26759

Abstract

Edge Computing (EC) is a new architecture that extends Cloud Computing (CC) services closer to data sources. EC combined with Deep Learning (DL) is a promising technology and is widely used in several applications. However, in conventional DL architectures with EC enabled, data [...] Read more.

Edge Computing (EC) is a new architecture that extends Cloud Computing (CC) services closer to data sources. EC combined with Deep Learning (DL) is a promising technology and is widely used in several applications. However, in conventional DL architectures with EC enabled, data producers must frequently send and share data with third parties, edge or cloud servers, to train their models. This architecture is often impractical due to the high bandwidth requirements, legalization, and privacy vulnerabilities. The Federated Learning (FL) concept has recently emerged as a promising solution for mitigating the problems of unwanted bandwidth loss, data privacy, and legalization. FL can co-train models across distributed clients, such as mobile phones, automobiles, hospitals, and more, through a centralized server, while maintaining data localization. FL can therefore be viewed as a stimulating factor in the EC paradigm as it enables collaborative learning and model optimization. Although the existing surveys have taken into account applications of FL in EC environments, there has not been any systematic survey discussing FL implementation and challenges in the EC paradigm. This paper aims to provide a systematic survey of the literature on the implementation of FL in EC environments with a taxonomy to identify advanced solutions and other open problems. In this survey, we review the fundamentals of EC and FL, then we review the existing related works in FL in EC. Furthermore, we describe the protocols, architecture, framework, and hardware requirements for FL implementation in the EC environment. Moreover, we discuss the applications, challenges, and related existing solutions in the edge FL. Finally, we detail two relevant case studies of applying FL in EC, and we identify open issues and potential directions for future research. We believe this survey will help researchers better understand the connection between FL and EC enabling technologies and concepts. Full article

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24 pages, 1098 KB

Open AccessArticle

Blockchain Based Secure Routing and Trust Management in Wireless Sensor Networks

by Saba Awan, Nadeem Javaid, Sameeh Ullah, Asad Ullah Khan, Ali Mustafa Qamar and Jin-Ghoo Choi

Sensors 2022, 22(2), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020411 - 6 Jan 2022

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 7203

Abstract

In this paper, an encryption and trust evaluation model is proposed on the basis of a blockchain in which the identities of the Aggregator Nodes (ANs) and Sensor Nodes (SNs) are stored. The authentication of ANs and SNs is performed in public and [...] Read more.

In this paper, an encryption and trust evaluation model is proposed on the basis of a blockchain in which the identities of the Aggregator Nodes (ANs) and Sensor Nodes (SNs) are stored. The authentication of ANs and SNs is performed in public and private blockchains, respectively. However, inauthentic nodes utilize the network’s resources and perform malicious activities. Moreover, the SNs have limited energy, transmission range and computational capabilities, and are attacked by malicious nodes. Afterwards, the malicious nodes transmit wrong information of the route and increase the number of retransmissions due to which the SNs’ energy is rapidly consumed. The lifespan of the wireless sensor network is reduced due to the rapid energy dissipation of the SNs. Furthermore, the throughput increases and packet loss increase with the presence of malicious nodes in the network. The trust values of SNs are computed to eradicate the malicious nodes from the network. Secure routing in the network is performed considering residual energy and trust values of the SNs. Moreover, the Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA), a cryptosystem that provides asymmetric keys, is used for securing data transmission. The simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed model in terms of high packet delivery ratio. Full article

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2021

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17 pages, 604 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Ultra-Dense Wireless Powered Networks

by Panagiotis D. Diamantoulakis, Vasilis K. Papanikolaou and George K. Karagiannidis

Sensors 2021, 21(7), 2390; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072390 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2888

Abstract

The internet-of-things (IoT) is expected to have a transformative impact in several different domains, including energy management in smart grids, manufacturing, transportation, smart cities and communities, smart food and farming, and healthcare. To this direction, the maintenance cost of IoT deployments has been [...] Read more.

The internet-of-things (IoT) is expected to have a transformative impact in several different domains, including energy management in smart grids, manufacturing, transportation, smart cities and communities, smart food and farming, and healthcare. To this direction, the maintenance cost of IoT deployments has been identified as one of the main challenges, which is directly related to energy efficiency and autonomy of IoT solutions. In order to increase the energy sustainability of next-generation IoT, wireless power transfer (WPT) emerged as a promising technology; however, its effectiveness is hindered as the distance between the base station and the wireless powered IoT devices increases. To counter this effect, decentralized approaches based on the use of distributed densely deployed remote radio heads (RRHs) can be utilized to diminish the distance between the transmitting and the receiving nodes. A trade-off ensues from the use of RRHs as power beacons (PBs) or access points (APs) that enable either energy transfer during downlink or information reception during uplink, respectively. To balance this trade-off, in this work, the maximization of the ergodic rate in ultra-dense wireless powered networks is investigated. In more detail, three different protocols are introduced, optimized, and compared to each other: density splitting, time splitting, and hybrid time and density splitting, which are based on the optimization of the portion of the number of RRHs that are employed as PBs or APs at a specific time instance. Additionally, two different policies are taken into account regarding the PBs’ power constraint. The formulated problems that correspond to the combination of the proposed protocols with each of the two considered power constraint policies are optimally solved by using convex optimization tools and closed-form solutions are derived that result to useful insights. Finally, numerical results are provided, which illustrate the ergodic rate achieved by each of the proposed protocols and offer interesting conclusions regarding their comparison, which are directly linked to design guidelines and the required capital and operational expenses. Full article

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23 pages, 7582 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Possible Smart Metering System Evolution for Rural and Remote Areas Employing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and Internet of Things in Smart Grids

by Giovanni Battista Gaggero, Mario Marchese, Aya Moheddine and Fabio Patrone

Sensors 2021, 21(5), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21051627 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6815

Abstract

The way of generating and distributing energy throughout the electrical grid to all users is evolving. The concept of Smart Grid (SG) took place to enhance the management of the electrical grid infrastructure and its functionalities from the traditional system to an improved [...] Read more.

The way of generating and distributing energy throughout the electrical grid to all users is evolving. The concept of Smart Grid (SG) took place to enhance the management of the electrical grid infrastructure and its functionalities from the traditional system to an improved one. To measure the energy consumption of the users is one of these functionalities that, in some countries, has already evolved from a periodical manual consumption reading to a more frequent and automatic one, leading to the concept of Smart Metering (SM). Technology improvement could be applied to the SM systems to allow, on one hand, a more efficient way to collect the energy consumption data of each user, and, on the other hand, a better distribution of the available energy through the infrastructure. Widespread communication solutions based on existing telecommunication infrastructures instead of using ad-hoc ones can be exploited for this purpose. In this paper, we recall the basic elements and the evolution of the SM network architecture focusing on how it could further improve in the near future. We report the main technologies and protocols which can be exploited for the data exchange throughout the infrastructure and the pros and cons of each solution. Finally, we propose an innovative solution as a possible evolution of the SM system. This solution is based on a set of Internet of Things (IoT) communication technologies called Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) which could be employed to improve the performance of the currently used technologies and provide additional functionalities. We also propose the employment of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to periodically collect energy consumption data, with evident advantages especially if employed in rural and remote areas. We show some preliminary performance results which allow assessing the feasibility of the proposed approach. Full article

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