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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Electronic Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 December 2024) | Viewed by 35117

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Dr. Tian-Bing Xu

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Guest Editor

Director of Smart Materials & Intelligent Systems (SMIS) Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA
Interests: piezoelectric material and devices; smart systems; sensor and actuators; acoustic transducers; renewable energy; ocean wave energy
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Piezoelectric energy harvesting is one of the most practical methods to harvester vibration and motion energy to enable to make renewable and reliable local power sources fpr sensor networks, smart cities, internet of things, etc. In the last two decades, great efforts were taken on addressing cantilever beam based piezoelectric energy harvesters in thousands of journal papers. However, these papers only opened to door to understand piezoelectric energy harvesting technologies. Piezoelectric energy harvesting is an interdisciplinary topic of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, materials sciences, and physics. Many issues are remaining to be addressed in more details. This special issue will include but not limited to:

Piezoelectric materials and structures for energy harvesting
Dynamic energy transportations from vibration and motion sources to piezoelectric deformation energy
Energy conversation from piezoelectric deformation energy to electrical energy
Electrical Energy transportations from piezoelectric structures to batteries and super-capacitors
Piezoelectric energy harvesting circuits
New piezoelectric energy harvesting device concepts
Piezoelectric harvester fabrications
Piezoelectric energy harvesting device characterizations and demonstrations.
Piezoelectric energy harvester applications
Electrical power delivery from piezoelectric devices to resistive loads
Piezoelectric energy harvesters for vibration reductions

Dr. Tian-Bing Xu
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 3746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Piezoceramic Harvester for Sea Waves Energy Recovery in Environmental Monitoring Buoys

by Roberto Montanini, Antonio Cannuli, Fabrizio Freni, Antonino Quattrocchi and Andrea Venuto

Sensors 2025, 25(7), 2046; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25072046 - 25 Mar 2025

Viewed by 195

Abstract

In the last decades, marine environment monitoring has gained significant attention as it plays a fundamental role in ecosystem health and anthropogenic impact evaluation. This study presents the development of a sea wave energy recovery device based on piezoceramic harvesting, designed to contribute to the energy self-sufficiency of an environmental monitoring buoy. The system consists of a flexible S-shaped arm anchored to the buoy structure; the buoyancy system at the free end converts wave-induced motion into mechanical stress, deforming the opposite side of the arm, where piezoceramic patches are installed to generate electrical power. An extensive experimental campaign was conducted to perform the electromechanical characterization of the device and to analyze the manufacturing quality of the arm, produced by stereolithographic additive manufacturing. The results demonstrate the ability to harvest kinetic energy across a range of wave frequencies and amplitudes. Under the best conditions, a maximum transfer electric power of 220.2 ± 3.7 µW was reached. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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24 pages, 4104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Correction and Parameters Identification Considering Non-Uniform Electric Field in Cantilevered Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters

by Xianfeng Wang, Hui Liu, Huadong Zheng, Guoxiong Liu and Dan Xu

Sensors 2024, 24(15), 4943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24154943 - 30 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1053

Abstract

In the current electromechanical model of cantilevered piezoelectric energy harvesters, the assumption of uniform electric field strength within the piezoelectric layer is commonly made. This uniform electric field assumption seems reasonable since the piezoelectric layer looks like a parallel-plate capacitor. However, for a piezoelectric bender, the strain distribution along the thickness direction is not uniform, which means the internal electric field generated by the spontaneous polarization cannot be uniform. In the present study, a non-uniform electric field in the piezoelectric layer is resolved using electrostatic equilibrium equations. Based on these, the traditional distributed parameter electromechanical model is corrected and simplified to a practical single mode one. Compared with a traditional model adopting a uniform electric field, the bending stiffness term involved in the electromechanical governing equations is explicitly corrected. Through comparisons of predicted power output with two-dimensional finite element analysis, the results show that the present model can better predict the power output performance compared with the traditional model. It is found that the relative corrections to traditional model have nothing to do with the absolute dimensions of the harvesters, but only relate to three dimensionless parameters, i.e., the ratio of the elastic layer’s to the piezoelectric layer’s thickness; the ratio of the elastic modulus of the elastic layer to the piezoelectric layer; and the piezoelectric materials’ electromechanical coupling coefficient squared,

{k_{31}}^{2}

. It is also found that the upper-limit relative corrections are only related to

{k_{31}}^{2}

, i.e., the higher

{k_{31}}^{2}

is, the larger the upper-limit relative corrections will be. For a PZT-5 unimorph harvester, the relative corrections of bending stiffness and corresponding resonant frequency are up to 17.8% and 8.5%, respectively. An inverse problem to identify the material parameters based on experimentally obtained power output performance is also investigated. The results show that the accuracy of material parameters identification is improved when considering a non-uniform electric field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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20 pages, 7374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Piezoelectric Transducers: Complete Electromechanical Model with Parameter Extraction

by Michael L. Isaf and Gabriel A. Rincón-Mora

Sensors 2024, 24(13), 4367; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134367 - 5 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4148

Abstract

This paper presents a complete electromechanical (EM) model of piezoelectric transducers (PTs) independent of high or low coupling assumptions, vibration conditions, and geometry. The PT’s spring stiffness is modeled as part of the domain coupling transformer, and the piezoelectric EM coupling coefficient is modeled explicitly as a split inductor transformer. This separates the coupling coefficient from the coefficient used for conversion between mechanical and electrical domains, providing a more insightful understanding of the energy transfers occurring within a PT and allowing for analysis not previously possible. This also illustrates the role the PT’s spring plays in EM energy conversion. The model is analyzed and discussed from a circuits and energy harvesting perspective. Coupling between domains and how loading affects coupled energy are examined. Moreover, simple methods for experimentally extracting model parameters, including the coupling coefficient, are provided to empower engineers to quickly and easily integrate PTs in SPICE simulations for the rapid and improved development of PT interface circuits. The model and parameter extractions are validated by comparing them to the measured response of a physical cantilever-style PT excited by regular and irregular vibrations. In most cases, less than a 5–10% error between measured and simulated responses is observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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15 pages, 4414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pressure-Driven Piezoelectric Sensors and Energy Harvesting in Biaxially Oriented Polyethylene Terephthalate Film

by Romana Stepancikova, Robert Olejnik, Jiri Matyas, Milan Masar, Berenika Hausnerova and Petr Slobodian

Sensors 2024, 24(4), 1275; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24041275 - 17 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1986

Abstract

This study reports the possibility of using biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BOPET) plastic packaging to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electricity is generated due to the piezoelectricity of BOPET. Electricity generation depends on the mechanical deformation of the processing aids (inorganic crystals), which were found and identified by SEM and EDAX analyses as SiO₂. BOPET, as an electron source, was assembled and tested as an energy conversion and self-powered mechanical stimuli sensor using potential applications in wearable electronics. When a pressure pulse after pendulum impact with a maximum stress of 926 kPa and an impact velocity of 2.1 m/s was applied, a voltage of 60 V was generated with short-circuit current and charge densities of 15 μAcm⁻² and 138 nCm⁻², respectively. Due to the orientation and stress-induced crystallization of polymer chains, BOPET films acquire very good mechanical properties, which are not lost during their primary usage as packaging materials and are beneficial for the durability of the sensors. The signals detected using BOPET sensors derived from pendulum impact and sieve analyses were also harvested for up to 80 cycles and up to 40 s with short-circuit voltages of 107 V and 95 V, respectively. In addition to their low price, the advantage of sensors made from BOPET plastic packaging waste lies in their chemical resistance and stability under exposure to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and moisture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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21 pages, 23525 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Harvesting System Whose Potential Is Mapped with the Modified Fibonacci Function

by Jerzy Margielewicz, Damian Gąska, Grzegorz Litak, Jacek Caban, Agnieszka Dudziak, Xiaoqing Ma and Shengxi Zhou

Sensors 2023, 23(14), 6593; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23146593 - 21 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1208

Abstract

In this paper, we compare three energy harvesting systems in which we introduce additional bumpers whose mathematical model is mapped with a non-linear characteristic based on the hyperbolic sine Fibonacci function. For the analysis, we construct non-linear two-well, three-well and four-well systems with a cantilever beam and permanent magnets. In order to compare the effectiveness of the systems, we assume comparable distances between local minima of external wells and the maximum heights of potential barriers. Based on the derived dimensionless models of the systems, we perform simulations of non-linear dynamics in a wide spectrum of frequencies to search for chaotic and periodic motion zones of the systems. We present the issue of the occurrence of transient chaos in the analyzed systems. In the second part of this work, we determine and compare the effectiveness of the tested structures depending on the characteristics of the bumpers and an external excitation whose dynamics are described by the harmonic function, and find the best solutions from the point view of energy harvesting. The most effective impact of the use of bumpers can be observed when dealing with systems described by potential with deep external wells. In addition, the use of the Fibonacci hyperbolic sine is a simple and effective numerical tool for mapping non-linear properties of such motion limiters in energy harvesting systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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20 pages, 33234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Double-Versus Triple-Potential Well Energy Harvesters: Dynamics and Power Output

by Jerzy Margielewicz, Damian Gąska, Jacek Caban, Grzegorz Litak, Agnieszka Dudziak, Xiaoqing Ma and Shengxi Zhou

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 2185; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042185 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1836

Abstract

The basic types of multi-stable energy harvesters are bistable energy harvesting systems (BEH) and tristable energy harvesting systems (TEH). The present investigations focus on the analysis of BEH and TEH systems, where the corresponding depth of the potential well and the width of their characteristics are the same. The efficiency of energy harvesting for TEH and BEH systems assuming similar potential parameters is provided. Providing such parameters allows for reliable formulation of conclusions about the efficiency in both types of systems. These energy harvesting systems are based on permanent magnets and a cantilever beam designed to obtain energy from vibrations. Starting from the bond graphs, we derived the nonlinear equations of motion. Then, we followed the bifurcations along the increasing frequency for both configurations. To identify the character of particular solutions, we estimated their corresponding phase portraits, Poincare sections, and Lyapunov exponents. The selected solutions are associated with their voltage output. The results in this numerical study clearly show that the bistable potential is more efficient for energy harvesting provided the corresponding excitation amplitude is large enough. However, the tristable potential could work better in the limits of low-level and low-frequency excitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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Review

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28 pages, 10240 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Piezoelectric Footwear Energy Harvesters: Principles, Methods, and Applications

by Bingqi Zhao, Feng Qian, Alexander Hatfield, Lei Zuo and Tian-Bing Xu

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 5841; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135841 - 23 Jun 2023

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 23908

Abstract

Over the last couple of decades, numerous piezoelectric footwear energy harvesters (PFEHs) have been reported in the literature. This paper reviews the principles, methods, and applications of PFEH technologies. First, the popular piezoelectric materials used and their properties for PEEHs are summarized. Then, the force interaction with the ground and dynamic energy distribution on the footprint as well as accelerations are analyzed and summarized to provide the baseline, constraints, potential, and limitations for PFEH design. Furthermore, the energy flow from human walking to the usable energy by the PFEHs and the methods to improve the energy conversion efficiency are presented. The energy flow is divided into four processing steps: (i) how to capture mechanical energy into a deformed footwear, (ii) how to transfer the elastic energy from a deformed shoes into piezoelectric material, (iii) how to convert elastic deformation energy of piezoelectric materials to electrical energy in the piezoelectric structure, and (iv) how to deliver the generated electric energy in piezoelectric structure to external resistive loads or electrical circuits. Moreover, the major PFEH structures and working mechanisms on how the PFEHs capture mechanical energy and convert to electrical energy from human walking are summarized. Those piezoelectric structures for capturing mechanical energy from human walking are also reviewed and classified into four categories: flat plate, curved, cantilever, and flextensional structures. The fundamentals of piezoelectric energy harvesters, the configurations and mechanisms of the PFEHs, as well as the generated power, etc., are discussed and compared. The advantages and disadvantages of typical PFEHs are addressed. The power outputs of PFEHs vary in ranging from nanowatts to tens of milliwatts. Finally, applications and future perspectives are summarized and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System)

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