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17 pages, 569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Guo Xiang and the Problem of Self-Cultivation in Daoist Naturalism

by Benjamin Coles

Religions 2019, 10(6), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060388 - 18 Jun 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5517

Abstract

Recent research on Daoism has distinguished various models of self-cultivation present in the tradition, in particular those which aim at returning humanity to a natural, spontaneous form of existence (often associated with early pre-Qin “philosophical” Daoism), and those which aim at transcending human [...] Read more.

Recent research on Daoism has distinguished various models of self-cultivation present in the tradition, in particular those which aim at returning humanity to a natural, spontaneous form of existence (often associated with early pre-Qin “philosophical” Daoism), and those which aim at transcending human nature through technical practices (often associated with later “religious” Daoism). During the Wei-Jin period, organized Daoist religion was still in its early stages, yet the difference between the two models was very much an issue in the Dark Learning (xuanxue) thought of the intellectual elite. In this paper, I trace this debate as expressed in Wei-Jin thinker Guo Xiang’s Commentary to the Zhuangzi, in particular in Guo’s criticisms of the desire or attempt to exceed the limits (ji) of one’s inherent nature and his reinterpretation of the Zhuangzi’s criticisms of technical practices. While Guo follows Xiang Xiu in rejecting many of the claims of radical transcendence through self-cultivation, I argue that this does not imply that he lacks any positive conception of self-cultivation, but rather that he sees such cultivation as only possible through an immanent historical process in which both natural spontaneity and artificial techniques have a role to play. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

21 pages, 1987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Authenticity of Myriad Things in the Zhuangzi

by Chiayu Hsu

Religions 2019, 10(3), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030218 - 21 Mar 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 8834

Abstract

A large quantity of past research in philosophical Daoism has been dedicated to the authenticity of “dao”; this essay shifts the focus to the authenticity of the “myriad things 萬物 (wanwu)” in the Zhuangzi. The concept of “myriad [...] Read more.

A large quantity of past research in philosophical Daoism has been dedicated to the authenticity of “dao”; this essay shifts the focus to the authenticity of the “myriad things 萬物 (wanwu)” in the Zhuangzi. The concept of “myriad things”, which later gains paradigmatic importance in Chinese philosophy, was first introduced in the Laozi and developed in the Zhuangzi. Under the collective heading of “myriad”, “myriad things” encompasses all of the variegated existing entities in the empirical world, while also taking into account the individual particularities of each entity without calling forth any singular or set of qualities, or “essence”, that is shared by all individuals. As a concept that safeguards individual particularities, the use of “myriad things” in the Zhuangzi serves to counterargue against the essentialist tendency to treat “humans 人 (ren)” as a collective of moral agents with a singular and identifiable moral essence. By the same token, Daoist thinkers re-interpret the meaning of “heaven 天 (tian)” with “the collective name of the myriad things 萬物之總名”, thus transferring the transcendent meaning belonging to the former as a transcendent moral authority to the myriad variegated principles that are inherent to each existing and transforming individual. The Daoist theoretical frame breaks away from that of “heaven–human” and connects the re-interpreted “heaven” with concepts of “self-so/self-affirm 自然 (ziran)”, “essentials 情 (qing)”, “nature 性 (xing)”, and “potency 德 (de)”. In this respect, “authenticity 真 (zhen)”, as it is warranted by “non-action 無為 (wuwei)”, is proposed as an ultimate state of attainment that is identified with the self-realization of each individual being as herself, over and above the so-called moral goodness and its opposite. Furthermore, the self-realization of the authenticity of the myriad things is seemingly paradoxical in the sense that, from the perspective of the “transformation of the myriad things 萬物之化”, the separation between object and subject both exists and is non-existent. The proposition of “myriad things” opposes the essentialization of human beings, whereas the doctrine of the transformation of the myriad things opposes the belief in fixed essentials in individual entities. The road to realizing “authenticity” as herself is thus a never-ending process for each individual member of the myriad things. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

20 pages, 402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ziran: Authenticity or Authority?

by Misha Tadd

Religions 2019, 10(3), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030207 - 18 Mar 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6746

Abstract

This essay explores the core Daoist concept of ziran (commonly translated as spontaneity, naturalness, or self-so) and its relationship to authenticity and authority. Modern scholarship has often followed the interpretation of Guo Xiang (d. 312) in taking ziran as spontaneous individual authenticity completely [...] Read more.

This essay explores the core Daoist concept of ziran (commonly translated as spontaneity, naturalness, or self-so) and its relationship to authenticity and authority. Modern scholarship has often followed the interpretation of Guo Xiang (d. 312) in taking ziran as spontaneous individual authenticity completely unreliant on any external authority. This form of Daoism emphasizes natural transformations and egalitarian society. Here, the author draws on Heshanggong’s Commentary on the Daodejing to reveal a drastically dissimilar ziran conception based on the authority of the transcendent Way. The logic of this contrasting view of classical Daoism results not only in a vision of hierarchical society, but one where the ultimate state of human ziran becomes immortality. Expanding our sense of the Daodejing, this cosmology of authority helps unearths greater continuity of the text with Daoism’s later religious forms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

19 pages, 395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lineage Construction of the Southern School from Zhongli Quan to Liu Haichan and Zhang Boduan

by Weiwen Zhang

Religions 2019, 10(3), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030179 - 11 Mar 2019

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4339

Abstract

Examining relevant Daoist scriptures and records, this article traces the lineage relationship of Zhang Boduan (d. 1082) to his predecessors. His immediate teacher supposedly was Liu Haichan, based on whose teachings he compiled his main work, the Wuzhen pian (Awakening to Perfection). First [...] Read more.

Examining relevant Daoist scriptures and records, this article traces the lineage relationship of Zhang Boduan (d. 1082) to his predecessors. His immediate teacher supposedly was Liu Haichan, based on whose teachings he compiled his main work, the Wuzhen pian (Awakening to Perfection). First outlined by the Song scholar Lu Sicheng, the story was later expanded in various collections of immortals’ biographies. It is well known that the Southern School of internal alchemy (Golden Elixir) was constructed by Bai Yuchan and his disciples in the early 13th century. I show that this centers on the claim that Zhang Boduan, as Bai’s forerunner, received his teachings from Liu Haichan, a line that was then expanded to include the immortals Zhongli Quan and Lü Dongbin. I also suggest that the alchemical teaching of the Zhong-Lü tradition is particularly characterized by its emphasis on the dual cultivation of inner nature and life-destiny, focusing on the key concepts of clarity and stillness as well as nonaction, while centering on the reverted elixir of the golden fluid. The teaching matches the Daode jing (Book of the Dao and Its Virtue) instructions to “empty the mind, fill the belly, weaken the will, and strengthen the bones” (ch. 3). This emphasis may well be the reason the Zhong-Lü tradition superseded the Twofold Mystery school flourishing in the Tang and rose to the fore. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

15 pages, 1056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seeing and Hearing in the Laozi and Zhuangzi and the Question of Authority and Authenticity

by Andrej Fech

Religions 2019, 10(3), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10030155 - 4 Mar 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6558

Abstract

The present paper investigates the significance of visual and auditory metaphors as used in the main Daoist classics the Laozi 老子 and Zhuangzi 莊子. While both works disparage the role of the senses, they nonetheless employ a large number of metaphors related to [...] Read more.

The present paper investigates the significance of visual and auditory metaphors as used in the main Daoist classics the Laozi 老子 and Zhuangzi 莊子. While both works disparage the role of the senses, they nonetheless employ a large number of metaphors related to the sense experience. It is the contention of the author that examining these metaphors against the backdrop of the main modern theories dealing with characteristics of vision and hearing is crucial for a better understanding of how the authors of both works envisioned the ideal relation between man and the Way (dao 道) as well as their views on authority and authenticity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

13 pages, 1632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship between Authority and Authenticity in the Laozi: Employing Wu無as a Philosophical Framework

by Sharon Y. Small

Religions 2019, 10(2), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020079 - 25 Jan 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4515

Abstract

Wu 無is one of the most prominent terms in Ancient Daoist philosophy, and perhaps the only term to appear more than Dao in both the Laozi and the Zhuangzi. However, unlike Dao, wu is generally used as an adjective modifying or describing [...] Read more.

Wu 無is one of the most prominent terms in Ancient Daoist philosophy, and perhaps the only term to appear more than Dao in both the Laozi and the Zhuangzi. However, unlike Dao, wu is generally used as an adjective modifying or describing nouns such as “names”, “desires”, “knowledge”, “action”, and so forth. Whereas Dao serves as the utmost principle in both generation and practice, wu becomes one of the central methods to achieve or emulate this ideal. As a term of negation, wu usually indicates the absence of something, as seen in its relation to the term you 有—“to have” or “presence”. From the perspective of generative processes, wu functions as an undefined and undifferentiated cosmic situation from which no beginning can begin but everything can emerge. In the political aspect, wu defines, or rather un-defines the actions (non-coercive action, wuwei無為) that the utmost authority exerts to allow the utmost simplicity and “authenticity” (the zi自constructions) of the people. In this paper, I suggest an understanding of wu as a philosophical framework that places Pre-Qin Daoist thought as a system that both promotes our understanding of the way the world works and offers solutions to particular problems. Wu then is simultaneously metaphysical and concrete, general, and particular. It is what allows the world, the society, and the person to flourish on their own terms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

10 pages, 559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Dreamer and Their Authenticity in the Zhuangzi

by Barbara Aniela Bonar

Religions 2019, 10(2), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10020075 - 23 Jan 2019

Viewed by 4111

Abstract

In this paper, I explain the problem of the dreamer in the Zhuangzi. I aim to show that no difference exists between dreaming states and waking states because we have a fluctual relationship with these two stages. In both, “we are dreaming.” [...] Read more.

In this paper, I explain the problem of the dreamer in the Zhuangzi. I aim to show that no difference exists between dreaming states and waking states because we have a fluctual relationship with these two stages. In both, “we are dreaming.” Put another way, from a psychoanalytical point of view, one stage penetrates the other and vice versa. The difference between dreaming and non-dreaming disappears because dreaming is a structural process. Also, from a psychoanalytical perspective, all confirmations and negations about dreams and non-dreams leads to one point: the being, or rather the becoming, of the subject. How does this solve the problem of the True Person/True Human Being (zhenren真人)? Does such a person have dreams or not? Does the True Person sleep without dreams, as we find in the Zhuangzi? From a psychoanalytic perspective, this is not possible. To prove this, I will present few passages from the Zhuangzi and offer a psychoanalytic explanation of them based on Jacques Lacan’s theory of the fantasy and desire. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

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16 pages, 5040 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conceptualizing the Interaction of Buddhism and Daoism in the Tang Dynasty: Inner Cultivation and Outer Authority in the Daode Jing Commentaries of Cheng Xuanying and Li Rong

by Friederike Assandri

Religions 2019, 10(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010066 - 20 Jan 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5725

Abstract

This paper takes the different interpretations of one and the same sentences in the Daode jing as “inner cultivation” or “worldly power” respectively, in the commentaries of two closely related early Tang Daoist authors, Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 and Li Rong 李荣, as a [...] Read more.

This paper takes the different interpretations of one and the same sentences in the Daode jing as “inner cultivation” or “worldly power” respectively, in the commentaries of two closely related early Tang Daoist authors, Cheng Xuanying 成玄英 and Li Rong 李荣, as a starting point to approach the question of interaction of Buddhism and Daoism from a new angle. Instead of trying to pinpoint influences, origins, and derivatives, I propose to delineate philosophical discourses that cross the boundaries of the three teachings. Parallel excerpts from both commentaries show how Cheng reads the Daode jing as a guidebook for cultivation, and how Li Rong reads it as a guideline for governing. I argue that the differences could be read as the authors’ participation in different philosophical discourses, and I will show, for the case of Cheng Xuanying, how terminological overlap with contemporary Buddhist authors indicates that Buddhists and Daoists both participated in the discourse on inner cultivation with commentaries to their respective sacred scriptures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

20 pages, 558 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Abnormalities and Return: An Exploration of the Concept Fan 反 in the Laozi

by Zhongjiang Wang

Religions 2019, 10(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010032 - 5 Jan 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3500

Abstract

Laozi’s concept of fan 反 has many different interpretations. However, except for the fan character in chapter seventy-eight which says “appropriate language seems contradictory (fan 反)” where it obviously refers to contradictions or opposites (xiangfan 相反), all other appearances of this [...] Read more.

Laozi’s concept of fan 反 has many different interpretations. However, except for the fan character in chapter seventy-eight which says “appropriate language seems contradictory (fan 反)” where it obviously refers to contradictions or opposites (xiangfan 相反), all other appearances of this character should be explained as fan 返 (return). Return does not refer to opposites, nor does it refer to cyclicality. This point is illustrated through three main channels: first, we argue that in the Laozi, the character fan 反 was used as a phonetic loan for fan 返. Second, this paper shows that both fan and fugui 复归mean “return.” The third channel attempts to answer the questions of why and where the Laozi needs to advocate for the principle of return. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

15 pages, 1075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Some Wondrous Effects of Inner Calm, as Described and Explained in Yu Yan’s Zhouyi cantong qi fahui

by Stephen Eskildsen

Religions 2019, 10(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010031 - 4 Jan 2019

Viewed by 3743

Abstract

This essay examines what Yu Yan’s Zhouyi cantong qi fahui says about the suspension of breathing and pulse, as well as the extraordinary inner sensations and visions that accompany it. Yu Yan maintains that these things come about by simply bringing body and [...] Read more.

This essay examines what Yu Yan’s Zhouyi cantong qi fahui says about the suspension of breathing and pulse, as well as the extraordinary inner sensations and visions that accompany it. Yu Yan maintains that these things come about by simply bringing body and mind to the depths of stillness; they are not instigated through deliberate procedures such as holding of breath, visualization, incantation, gulping air, swallowing saliva, etc. Through sheer inner calm and single-minded concentration, breathing and pulse are suspended while an inner qi 氣 is generated that surges and circulates the body, bringing forth ravishing sensations and strange visions. Yu Yan explains why the inner qi and the visions come to be generated, and why one should and can disregard the visions. Yu Yan’s descriptions and explanations regarding inner calm and its wondrous effects help shed light on the Neidan (inner alchemy) methods of the major traditions of his time (especially Nanzong and Quanzhen), revealing details that tended to be obscured in abstruse metaphor or reserved for oral transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

10 pages, 375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Big and the Great: A Reconstruction of Zhuangzi’s Philosophy on Transcendence

by Limei Jiang

Religions 2019, 10(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10010030 - 4 Jan 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5028

Abstract

This essay attempts to demonstrate the logic of Zhuangzi in his different attitudes toward “debate on big and small” by bringing into discussion the two versions of translation in the English languages, which provide a new approach to analyze the difference in the [...] Read more.

This essay attempts to demonstrate the logic of Zhuangzi in his different attitudes toward “debate on big and small” by bringing into discussion the two versions of translation in the English languages, which provide a new approach to analyze the difference in the controversial commentaries on Zhuangzi. This essay points out that the ideal of “free and easy wandering” is a type of positive pleasure. By means of rational thinking and imagination, one’s searching for the external values is turned into the internal pursuit for wisdom in the transformation of things. Zhuangzi’s theory of transcendence not only provides the subject with multi-perspectives, but also substitutes the self-identity with self-value. Through the interaction between self-awareness and self-reaction, the subject can be unified with the great Dao through purposive activities. However, Guo Xiang’s commentary cancels the necessity of self-cultivation and negates the purposefulness of the subject, which underestimates the value of Zhuangzi’s construction of transcendence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

20 pages, 341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Hearts and Wandering Spirits in Nietzsche and Zhuangzi

by Katrin Froese

Religions 2018, 9(12), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9120411 - 12 Dec 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3570

Abstract

Both Nietzsche and Zhuangzi spurn the boundaries of human convention and traditional authority and maintain that the ego-self, based on the internalization of external norms is its unwelcome byproduct. In an attempt to counteract this, these thinkers espouse a wandering approach to existence, [...] Read more.

Both Nietzsche and Zhuangzi spurn the boundaries of human convention and traditional authority and maintain that the ego-self, based on the internalization of external norms is its unwelcome byproduct. In an attempt to counteract this, these thinkers espouse a wandering approach to existence, which would affirm the existence of the variegated and perpetually evolving cosmos and help to undo the often pernicious effects of the objectification of language. Paradoxically, they maintain that a deep connection to other beings and the natural world necessitates a willingness to embrace solitude and also the dissolution of the self. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

11 pages, 391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Authority without Authenticity: The Zhuangzi’s Genuine Pretending as Socio-Political Strategy

by Paul D’Ambrosio and Hans-Georg Moeller

Religions 2018, 9(12), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9120398 - 4 Dec 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4871

Abstract

In this paper, we present a socio-political reading of the Zhuangzi based in part on a brief review of contemporary Chinese scholarship on the text. We will argue that the approach to dealing with authority in the Zhuangzi can be summarized by the [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present a socio-political reading of the Zhuangzi based in part on a brief review of contemporary Chinese scholarship on the text. We will argue that the approach to dealing with authority in the Zhuangzi can be summarized by the phrase “externally transforming without transforming internally”. When applied to situations where the individual engages with political or social authority, this idea commends the art of retaining a non-conforming and non-committed internal state while, to an extent, conforming to external circumstances and committing to certain actions. In this way the Zhuangzi not only aims at ensuring safety in potentially dangerous encounters with authority, but also the avoidance of “authenticating” authority. Following the language and logic of the Zhuangzi, the emphasis is on “forgetting (wang 忘)”, “losing (sang 桑)”, and “negating (wu 無)” one’s social self, rather than constructing or discovering an “authentic self” that might ultimately only reify authority. We will refer to the Zhuangzi’s strategy in terms of what we call “genuine pretending”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

26 pages, 546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Explorations in Authority in the Daodejing: A Daoist Engagement with Hannah Arendt

by Thomas Michael

Religions 2018, 9(12), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9120378 - 22 Nov 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4777

Abstract

The present study is an attempt to liberate the thought of the Daodejing from the constraints imposed on it by both traditional Confucian exegesis and modern Western sinological methodologies in the effort to engage the thought of the work more directly. Because the [...] Read more.

The present study is an attempt to liberate the thought of the Daodejing from the constraints imposed on it by both traditional Confucian exegesis and modern Western sinological methodologies in the effort to engage the thought of the work more directly. Because the language and thought of the Daodejing are somehow oddly foreign to the Western traditions of analytic philosophy and sinology, this study attempts to make the Daodejing more familiar by recourse to the tradition of continental philosophy, in this case by taking recourse to Hannah Arendt and in particular to her seminal essay on authority. Engaging Arendt’s understanding of authority, this study offers a new look at the thought of the Daodejing by discussing issues that lie at the heart of its political vision, including natural versus political authority, power and coercion, and the relation between authority, tradition, and religion. This study also attempts to situate the fate of the Daodejing’s conception of authority in Chinese political history, and it concludes with a brief look at the contemporary comparative philosophical project that brings the Daodejing into conversation with continental philosophy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

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Jump to: Research

10 pages, 440 KiB

Open AccessEssay

The Hermeneutics of Contentious Imagery: What Exactly the Zhuangzi Has to Say about the Straw Dogs in the Laozi

by Callisto Searle

Religions 2019, 10(6), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10060359 - 31 May 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4916

Abstract

The image of “straw dogs” (chugou 刍狗) is a simile used in chapter five of the Laozi (老子), in a passage generally understood as an explicit Daoist rejection of kind acts (or benevolence as ren 仁 was translated for a long time), [...] Read more.

The image of “straw dogs” (chugou 刍狗) is a simile used in chapter five of the Laozi (老子), in a passage generally understood as an explicit Daoist rejection of kind acts (or benevolence as ren 仁 was translated for a long time), well known as the basis of Confucian teachings. Further along the Daoist lineage of philosophical texts, the same image of sacrificial straw dogs also makes an appearance in the Zhuangzi (庄子), and this passage will become a welcome source of hermeneutic evidence for translators faced with the stark appearance of the image in the Laozi, that offers little elaboration on its meaning. James Legge adopted this hermeneutic approach in his early translation, offering a quote wherein the straw dogs seem to be treated somewhat cruelly, and reference to the Zhuangzi to interpret the Laozi for this particular image is a method that persists to the present day. English translations of this chapter see “not being ren” translated as emotively as “unkind”, “inhumane” or “cruel”. Although we cannot say that early forays in interpretation are responsible for later translation choices, we can assess the original interpretation against the broader context of the Zhuangzi as a whole. If we read further on in the original passage alone, we find a more developed context to consider, while searching the whole of the Zhuangzi for comparable passages offers an interesting foil for comparison. Beginning with a simple analysis of the term as it appears in the Laozi and its commentaries, this essay goes on to make a case for more thorough contextualization of challenging terms. We suggest seeking internal evidence and cross-reference between sympathetic texts, along with historical evidence, and consideration of authorial intent may be effective ways to offer a contextualized interpretation of “straw dogs” that may be more faithful to the concerns of authors employing the image. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue “Authority Versus Authenticity”: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Daoist Studies)

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