Research

15 pages, 876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ritual and Space: The Therapeutic Function of the Recitations of the Hexi Baojuan

by Shichang Zhao

Religions 2023, 14(8), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081025 - 10 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 910

In the region where the Precious Scrolls of Hexi (Hexi Baojuan) are recited, people often use the Precious Scrolls (Baojuan) as a tool to pray for peace and happiness, to prevent plagues and calamities, and to heal ailments. By [...] Read more.

In the region where the Precious Scrolls of Hexi (Hexi Baojuan) are recited, people often use the Precious Scrolls (Baojuan) as a tool to pray for peace and happiness, to prevent plagues and calamities, and to heal ailments. By creating a sacred healing field, the rituals of Hexi Baojuan materialize, symbolize, and sanctify the space to expel disasters and cure illnesses. Through the mechanism of imagination and symbolism, its functions of averting disasters and curing diseases become apparent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

14 pages, 2247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shamanic Healing or Scientific Treatment?—Transformation of Khorchin Mongolian Bone-Setting in China

by Gencang Meng

Religions 2023, 14(7), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070910 - 14 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1311

Abstract

This paper, taking the medical practice of Khorchin Mongolian bone-setting as an example, examines the conflict and connection between religious healing and modern (or Western) medicine as well as the transformation of shamanisms in the discourse of nation-state building in China, and argues [...] Read more.

This paper, taking the medical practice of Khorchin Mongolian bone-setting as an example, examines the conflict and connection between religious healing and modern (or Western) medicine as well as the transformation of shamanisms in the discourse of nation-state building in China, and argues that the relationship between shamanic healing and modern medicine is not a binary opposition. Khorchin Mongolian bone-setting is the product of the interaction between alternative medicine and syncretistic local knowledge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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16 pages, 8772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Changes of Chinese Oroqen Shaman Culture in the Context of Social Transformation

by Zhuo Ni and Yue Guo

Religions 2023, 14(7), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070867 - 03 Jul 2023

Viewed by 993

Abstract

With the settlement under the mountains, the Chinese Oroqen has started comprehensive interaction with other ethnic groups, and gradually adapted to the wider society. During this process, the shaman culture, which has accompanied the Oroqen’s daily life and social development for a long [...] Read more.

With the settlement under the mountains, the Chinese Oroqen has started comprehensive interaction with other ethnic groups, and gradually adapted to the wider society. During this process, the shaman culture, which has accompanied the Oroqen’s daily life and social development for a long time, has changed accordingly. Through looking at the changes of shaman culture, the self-adjustment process of Oroqen people in the transition from traditional to modern society can be better understood. It is also an important entry point to understand the social and cultural transformation and community consciousness of Oroqen people, which helps to understand their cultural self-confidence and identity consciousness. Grounded in ethnographic observations, especially “the last shaman” Guan Kouni’s life story, this paper traces the shaman culture and its social significance in the traditional society for Oroqen people. With the help of the research paradigm of “embedding–disembedding–re-embedding”, the article compares the reshaping of the identity of Oroqen shamans under the combined effect of various socio-historical events since the settlement, smoothing out the changing process in the Oroqen shaman culture, and discussing the transformation of the social function of Oroqen shaman. This article offers a more comprehensive picture of the cultural changes of Oroqen shaman since the settlement under the mountains, in order to clarify the role and functions played by Oroqen shamans at contemporary society and provide a reference case for understanding the significant transformation of the original functions and status of the traditional elites of ethnic minorities in the theoretical sense. The study explores motivations for the deepening of cultural consciousness among ethnic groups in the context of modernity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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32 pages, 3751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chinese Wu, Ritualists and Shamans: An Ethnological Analysis

by Michael James Winkelman

Religions 2023, 14(7), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070852 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4610

Abstract

The relationship of wu (巫) to shamanism is problematic, with virtually all mentions of historical and contemporary Chinese wu ritualists translated into English as shaman. Ethnological research is presented to illustrate cross-cultural patterns of shamans and other ritualists, providing an etic framework for [...] Read more.

The relationship of wu (巫) to shamanism is problematic, with virtually all mentions of historical and contemporary Chinese wu ritualists translated into English as shaman. Ethnological research is presented to illustrate cross-cultural patterns of shamans and other ritualists, providing an etic framework for empirical assessments of resemblances of Chinese ritualists to shamans. This etic framework is further validated with assessments of the relationship of the features with biogenetic bases of ritual, altered states of consciousness, innate intelligences and endogenous healing processes. Key characteristics of the various types of wu and other Chinese ritualists are reviewed and compared with ethnological models of the patterns of ritualists found cross-culturally to illustrate their similarities and contrasts. These comparisons illustrate the resemblances of pre-historic and commoner wu to shamans but additionally illustrate the resemblances of most types of wu to other ritualist types, not shamans. Across Chinese history, wu underwent transformative changes into different types of ritualists, including priests, healers, mediums and sorcerers/witches. A review of contemporary reports on alleged shamans in China also illustrates that only some correspond to the characteristics of shamans found in cross-cultural research and foraging societies. The similarities of most types of wu ritualists to other types of ritualists found cross-culturally illustrate the greater accuracy of translating wu as “ritualist” or “religious ritualist.” Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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18 pages, 938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Social Maintenance and Cultural Continuity—Folk Religion among the Tu Ethnic Group in Northwest China

by Haiyan Xing and Mengting Huang

Religions 2023, 14(6), 714; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060714 - 29 May 2023

Viewed by 1224

Abstract

Despite economic development and social changes, folk religion in China has not died out, but has survived and has even experienced a revival. Oscillating state policies have in general had a strong impact on religion in China. Though there is no official recognition [...] Read more.

Despite economic development and social changes, folk religion in China has not died out, but has survived and has even experienced a revival. Oscillating state policies have in general had a strong impact on religion in China. Though there is no official recognition of ethnic folk-religions, the state classifies them positively as manifestations of local cultural heritage and in this context has supported—not stifled—public folk religious practices among the Tu. This study deals with folk religious’ practice among the Tu ethnic group in Northwest China. The article highlights animist ontology as a theoretical perspective for analyzing the religious practices of the Tu ethnic group in China. The authors carried out anthropological procedures of participant observation and interviewing in the Tu community distributed in Qinghai Province and now present a portrait of the folk religion in typical Tu communities located in Minhe County and Huzhu County. The article also discusses the tripartite cosmology of the Tu and the positive interactions with national authorities. Quite apart from the issue of the impact of the state, the authors document, via prolonged ethnographic immersion in two regions, that the folk religion of the Tu is also closely linked to, and continues to have an impact on, daily life, particularly with regard to the construction and maintenance of ethnic community structure. This paper is organized as follows. First, we present ethnographic information on the religious beliefs and ritual practices of the Tu. The subsequent section then discusses how public folk-religious performances receive support from the state in the context of tourism and local economic development and how they contribute to the maintenance of community structure and social order. The conclusion summarizes the process by which ethnic folk religions have not only survived, but, in part as a result of state support for ethnic cultural heritage, experienced a revival. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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21 pages, 8331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deities System and Ritual Practice: A Case Study of the Daur Shamanic Oboo Ritual

by Minna Sa

Religions 2023, 14(5), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050661 - 16 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1264

Abstract

The restoration and reconstruction of Daur shamanism is classical and representative of the revival of shamanism in contemporary China. The case study of the Daur shamanic oboo ritual in this paper discusses the connotation and classification of oboo. Through a brief description [...] Read more.

The restoration and reconstruction of Daur shamanism is classical and representative of the revival of shamanism in contemporary China. The case study of the Daur shamanic oboo ritual in this paper discusses the connotation and classification of oboo. Through a brief description of the main process of the ceremony, the shaman spirits, and the main contents of the divine songs, this paper analyzes the characteristics and functions of the contemporary Daur shaman sacrificing oboo ceremony. The contemporary Daur shamanic oboo ritual also puts forward the concept of “mokun kurə” (mokun circle), which restores the function of the traditional clan organization of mokun, enhances the cohesion of the mokun family, and inspires a sense of responsibility and motivation in the mokun members. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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16 pages, 1524 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shamanic Culture’s Reconnection of Earth and Heaven (Xu Ditiantong) in the New Era in China: The Dialectical Relationship between Material Civilization and Cultural Intimacy

by Xiaoshuang Liu

Religions 2023, 14(4), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040500 - 05 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1774

Abstract

Shamanic culture, which adheres to the worldview of connecting earth and heaven, has been marginalized in the discourse of the modern material world and separated from mainstream society. However, with the increase in personal problems in civil society and the rise of regional [...] Read more.

Shamanic culture, which adheres to the worldview of connecting earth and heaven, has been marginalized in the discourse of the modern material world and separated from mainstream society. However, with the increase in personal problems in civil society and the rise of regional cultural identity since the reform and opening up in China, shamanic practitioners have again become active. Adapting to the official ideology, shamanic culture has emerged in China as a new form of folk culture and cultural heritage. Using Michael Herzfeld’s theory of “cultural intimacy” to a limited extent, this paper regards the new image of the shamanic tradition that has appeared in the new era as a manifestation of “cultural intimacy”, which does not infringe the authority of official discourse, nor damage the interests of government departments, and is in line with the imagination of official discourse about culture. Within the shaman cultural community, the shamanic tradition continues to connect earth and heaven, helping to solve difficult personal problems, alleviating the pressure of the material world, and at the same time making the sacred expression of the members of the shaman cultural community possible. In this way, the shaman tradition, which has emerged in a new image since the new era, has maintained the ecological balance between government and folk practices and formed a more stable pattern of cooperation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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28 pages, 7717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deconstruction of the Trance Model: Historical, Ethnographic, and Contextual Studies of Manchu Shamanism

by Feng Qu

Religions 2023, 14(4), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040496 - 04 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1786

Abstract

Social trends and historical contexts have popularized Eliade’s trance model in shamanism studies and have contributed to a famous academic debate. A case study on Manchu shamanism conducted in this article shows that a Manchu shaman functions primarily as a sacrificial specialist rather [...] Read more.

Social trends and historical contexts have popularized Eliade’s trance model in shamanism studies and have contributed to a famous academic debate. A case study on Manchu shamanism conducted in this article shows that a Manchu shaman functions primarily as a sacrificial specialist rather than a mental state adept. Three types of Manchu shamanism—court shamanism, clan shamanism, and wild shamanism—are examined based on historical and ethnographic analyses. This study deconstructs the trance model and demonstrates that shamanism among Manchus has a dynamic, reactive, constitutive, and unstable historical process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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14 pages, 830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neighbours in the City: “Four Animal Spirits” in Beijing from the 19th Century to the Present

by Xi Ju

Religions 2023, 14(3), 396; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030396 - 15 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1132

Abstract

In northern China, four animals—the fox, weasel, hedgehog, and snake—are commonly believed to have the magical power of immortality, and they are referred to as the Four Animal Spirits (四大门, sidamen). Researchers have regarded these spirits as part of a form of shamanism, [...] Read more.

In northern China, four animals—the fox, weasel, hedgehog, and snake—are commonly believed to have the magical power of immortality, and they are referred to as the Four Animal Spirits (四大门, sidamen). Researchers have regarded these spirits as part of a form of shamanism, but what I learned from my fieldwork in Beijing suggests a different understanding. From the 19th century to the present day, many inhabitants of Beijing have consistently believed that the Four Animal Spirits have their own personalities, intentionalities, and social organisation. They can change their status through self-cultivation, and they share the city with humans, who are their neighbours. As humans can understand animals, these animals can understand humans and respond rationally to changes happening in the world. These beliefs are not unique to Beijing’s residents; indeed, similar ideas can be found in classical Chinese literature before the Han Dynasty (202–220 BCE); moreover, these beliefs differ significantly from the widely accepted theory of shamanism. Knowing about the Four Animal Spirits does not constitute a window into or a way of organising human societies; the Four Animal Spirits do not represent a cultural structure or deep unconsciousness. They provide knowledge about the relationship between humans and animals and entice people to learn about these animals, live with them, and, ultimately, construct a world in which humans and animals can coexist. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

19 pages, 25356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Re-Exploring Origins of the Qixiang Sacrificial Rite Practiced by the Han Army Eight Banners in Northeast China

by Lina Zhao and De Zheng

Religions 2023, 14(2), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14020195 - 01 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1601

Abstract

Qixiang is a unique sacrificial culture created by the Han army eight banners in northeast China. This culture not only has elements such as shamanism and Han people burning incense, but also has military sacrificial elements. This paper argues that Qixiang is the [...] Read more.

Qixiang is a unique sacrificial culture created by the Han army eight banners in northeast China. This culture not only has elements such as shamanism and Han people burning incense, but also has military sacrificial elements. This paper argues that Qixiang is the evolution and legacy of Maji, a military sacrificial ritual in ancient China. The Han military banner people in the Qing Dynasty took Maji as the main body, combined the Manchu Shamanism with the Han incense burning, and created a cultural symbol representing their own ethnic group. At present, the study of Qixiang not only helps to understand the complexity of the development and evolution of Manchu shamanism, but also helps to reveal the ethnic identity of Han bannermen under the Eight Banners system of the Qing Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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8 pages, 454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shamanism and the Manchu Bannermen of the Qing Dynasty

by Xiaoli Jiang

Religions 2022, 13(10), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13100884 - 22 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1968

Abstract

With the Qing armies marching into Beijing through the Shanhai Pass, the Manchu bannermen under the Eight Banners system saw great changes in their everyday lives. However, they continued with the practice of shamanic sacrifices. This paper analyzes the “Sacred Books”, genealogies, and [...] Read more.

With the Qing armies marching into Beijing through the Shanhai Pass, the Manchu bannermen under the Eight Banners system saw great changes in their everyday lives. However, they continued with the practice of shamanic sacrifices. This paper analyzes the “Sacred Books”, genealogies, and other historical materials about shamanic rituals, to place shamanism in the lives of the bannermen of the Qing Dynasty. It explores the relationship between this religion and the lives of Manchu bannermen, their clan organizations, and their livelihoods. The paper helps strengthen our understanding of shamanism that continued to flourish during the Qing Dynasty by playing a vital role in the lives of Manchu bannermen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Revitalization of Shamanism in Contemporary China)

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