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Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents

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A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Pharmaceutical Processes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2024) | Viewed by 15335

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Dr. Adriana Trifan

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Department of Pharmacognosy-Phytotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania
Interests: pharmacognosy; phytochemistry; high-resolution mass spectrometry; gas chromatography; antimicrobials; anticancer; anti-inflammatory
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Dr. Izabela Korona-Głowniak

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Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 1, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
Interests: microbiology; antimicrobial activity testing; biofilm; infectious diseases; microbiota; molecular microbiology; antibiotic resistance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Infectious diseases are responsible for large-scale morbidity and mortality worldwide. The emergence of multi-drug-resistant pathogens represents one of the greatest challenges modern medicine needs to face. In this context, there is a high demand for greater research efforts to identify new antimicrobial strategies. Plant-based antimicrobials are valuable tools in the fight against pathogens due to their multi-componential nature, which translates into a multi-target activity and constitutes a great advantage compared to the single-target effects of conventional antimicrobials. In addition, synergistic interactions between plant extracts and antimicrobial drugs are promising approaches to improve their efficacy, decrease toxicity, and reverse microbial resistance. Moreover, plant metabolites have served as scaffolds for the synthesis and semi-synthesis of novel antimicrobial drugs.

Therefore, this Special Issue welcomes the submission of articles (both original research papers and reviews) that focus on the importance of phytochemicals as antimicrobial agents in human health, food and veterinary medicine, and look to highlight preclinical and clinical findings on plant-based antimicrobials.

Dr. Adriana Trifan
Dr. Izabela Korona-Głowniak
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

plant products
antimicrobial agents
antibiotic resistance
multi-drug resistance
preclinical (in vitro/in vivo) studies
clinical studies
evidence-based medicine
systematic reviews & meta-analyses

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial Effect of Boswellia serrata Resin’s Methanolic Extracts Against Skin Infection Pathogens

by Petar Todorović, Maja Krstić Ristivojević, Marko Jović, Đurđa Ivković, Jasmina Nestorović Živković, Uroš Gašić, Ivica Dimkić, Ivana Stojiljković and Petar Ristivojević

Processes 2025, 13(3), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030850 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 676

Abstract

Frankincense resin (Boswellia serrata), native to arid regions of India, the Middle East, and parts of Africa, has been highly valued for its medicinal properties. This study evaluated the antimicrobial potential of methanolic extracts of Boswellia serrata resin against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Listeria monocytogenes. High-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) coupled with bioautography identified bioactive zones, while Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) quantified the phenolic and terpenoid compounds. The cytotoxicity was assessed on HaCaT human keratinocyte cells to evaluate the safety for dermatological applications. The results demonstrated significant antibacterial activity, particularly against S. aureus and L. monocytogenes. The bioautograms revealed that samples from central and southern Serbia showed the highest antimicrobial effect against the tested bacterial strains. The active compounds included 11-keto-β-boswellic acid (up to 3733.96 μg/g), gallic acid (110.93 μg/g), and naringenin (53.13 μg/g). Cytotoxicity assays confirmed non-toxic effects at 10 µg/mL, with sample 6 enhancing the keratinocyte viability by 137%, while higher concentrations (50 µg/mL) showed variable cytotoxicity. These findings highlight the potential of B. serrata resin as a natural antimicrobial agent, particularly against antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Its therapeutic applicability in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations is promising provided that dosing ensures a balance between efficacy and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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22 pages, 3543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formulation and In Vitro Assessment of Tragacanth Gum-Based Hydrogel Loaded with Artemisia vestita Leaf Extract for Wound Healing

by Shivani Dogra, Bhupendra Koul, Joginder Singh, Meerambika Mishra and Muhammad Fazle Rabbee

Processes 2024, 12(12), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122750 - 3 Dec 2024

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Abstract

Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Besser, a traditional medicinal plant with healing properties, is receiving significant attention as a potential therapeutic agent for wound healing. In this study, eight Artemisia vestita leaf extract hydrogel formulations (F1–F8) were carefully designed and studied. The hydrogel formulations contained A. vestita leaf extract, tragacanth gum, humectants, preservatives, pH stabilizers, and Milli-Q water. A preformulation study was conducted to ensure safety and efficacy. Moreover, various experiments assessed the potential application and characteristics of A. vestita leaf extract hydrogel (ALEH). Drug release and swelling studies were conducted at different pH levels and temperatures. The best drug release model was identified based on the regression coefficient (R²). Antimicrobial efficacy was assessed using the agar well diffusion method, and wound healing in HaCat cells was assessed using the scratch assay. ALEH exhibited non-Fickian diffusion, with higher drug release noted at pH 6.8 than at pH 4.5, indicating pH-responsive behavior. It exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against various strains and achieved 95% wound closure after 24 h in vitro, indicating strong wound healing properties. It also had a long shelf life; therefore, it could have pharmaceutical and medical applications. Our study is the first to report the potential applications of ALEH in skincare and wound management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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22 pages, 2697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formulating an Innovative Emulsion Based on Poloxamer 407 Containing Oregano and Thyme Essential Oils as Alternatives for the Control of Mastitis Caused by Staphylococcus aureus

by Nayhara M. Guimarães, Nicolly S. Ferreira, Kássia V. Menezes, Cleveland S. Neto, Gabriel M. Cunha, Luciano Menini, Juliana A. Resende and Janaina C. O. Villanova

Processes 2024, 12(12), 2640; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122640 - 23 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1045

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance poses a significant challenge in human and veterinary medicine, primarily due to the overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents. This issue is especially problematic when treating bovine mastitis, a prevalent infection in dairy cattle often caused by Staphylococcus aureus. We developed a sterile emulsion incorporating essential oils (EOs) of Origanum vulgare and Thymus vulgaris, known for their antimicrobial properties. The formulation based on poloxamer 407 was designed for intramammary or topical application on bovine teats. The most promising emulsion was subjected to preliminary stability testing at various temperature conditions over a 35-day period, during which its physicochemical characteristics, texture profile, and film-forming capacity were assessed. In vitro assays were used to evaluate its efficacy against both antimicrobial-sensitive and -resistant S. aureus strains. Thymol was identified as the predominant bioactive compound in the EOs. The formulation, containing 10% (w/w) EOs, exhibited antimicrobial activity against all tested strains and remained stable without phase separation. The emulsion demonstrated film-forming properties along with a satisfactory texture profile. These findings suggest that the emulsion has potential as an alternative therapeutic approach for the treatment of antimicrobial-resistant S. aureus infections in bovine mastitis, highlighting the potential of natural compounds in combating AMR. Further clinical studies are necessary to confirm the safety and therapeutic efficacy of the emulsion in vivo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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18 pages, 4662 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrospun Fibers of Ecovio^® Polymer Blends with Antimicrobial Tea Tree Essential Oil: Enhanced Chemical and Biological Properties

by Bianca Z. de Souza, Débora P. Facchi, Suelen P. Facchi, Carlos F. Teodoro, Débora A. de Almeida, Ketul C. Popat, Matt J. Kipper, Elton G. Bonafé and Alessandro F. Martins

Processes 2024, 12(11), 2330; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112330 - 24 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1060

Abstract

This study presents the development of fibers with favorable properties for biodegradable wound dressings made from the Ecovio^® (EC) polymer blend, composed of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), incorporated with tea tree essential oil (TTE). TTE presented antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus, achieving minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 15 and 7.5 mg/mL, respectively. The TTE was mixed with EC in a binary chloroform and formic acid (85/15 v/v) mixture. The EC/TTE fibers were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier-transform infrared with attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), confirming the TTE in the fibers. The tests showed that TTE (0.5, 1.0, or 1.5 mL) improved the polymer blend’s electrospinnability, leading to bead-free, homogenous, and smaller fiber diameters. TTE (1.5 mL or 75 w% concerning the EC) leads to homogeneous fibers with an average diameter of 278 ± 59 nm. TTE (75 w%) increased the wettability of the EC fibers from 120 ± 2° to 69 ± 1°. Preliminary bacterial adhesion and proliferation assays demonstrated that the EC/TTE fibers have anti-adhesive activity and demonstrate greater toxicity, which seems more toxic against P. aeruginosa than S. aureus after 24 h of incubation. Fluorescence and coagulation kinetics tests performed with human blood indicated that the EC/TTE fibers accelerate blood coagulation. The EC/TTE fibers exhibit promising chemical and biological properties (in vitro) for developing wound dressings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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16 pages, 1392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Antileishmanial, Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Potential of Cecropia concolor Willd (Urticaceae), an Amazonian Species

by Sthéfanny Caroline Mendes Azevedo, Bruno Sampaio Amorim, Rogéria Cristina Zauli, Leilane de Souza Mendonça, Lethicia do Nascimento Marinho, Marcela Martins Vieira, Keyla Maciel Carvalho, Geverson Façanha, Weison Lima da Silva, Lucas de Souza Falcão, Marne Carvalho de Vasconcellos, Patrícia Xander, Cecilia Veronica Nunez and Patrícia Melchionna Albuquerque

Processes 2024, 12(10), 2237; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102237 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1093

Abstract

Cecropia sp. (Urticaceae) are commonly used in traditional medicine in South American countries for the treatment of different diseases. To date, the species Cecropia concolor Willd, of Amazonian occurrence, has not been investigated for its pharmacological potential. In this study, we described the chemical profile and the antileishmanial, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of extracts of the leaves of C. concolor. The ethanolic extract and its partition phases (hexane, ethyl acetate and hydroethanolic) were analyzed for their chemical classes and phenolic content. Antileishmanial activity was assessed against Leishmania (L.) amazonensis. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using the DPPH method and in MRC-5 human fibroblast cells. Toxicity was tested against Artemia salina and in human cells (fibroblasts and cancer lines). The leaves of C. concolor have phenolic substances, such as flavonoids, as well as terpenes, steroids and alkaloids. Chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, schaftoside and vicenin 2 were identified. The hydroethanolic phase showed a high concentration of phenolic compounds and pronounced antioxidant activity. The antileishmanial activity was observed in the ethanolic extract, with a promising effect of the hexane phase. The C. concolor ethanolic extract and its phases are non-toxic, which makes this species of interest in pharmaceutical and cosmetics applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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13 pages, 2960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Polyvinyl Alcohol/Chitosan/C-AgNP/Starch Composite Gel with Excellent Swelling and Water Retention Properties for Effective Antibacterial Action

by Bo Fan, Dan Yang, Qian Feng, Yucai He, Wei He and Meizi Huang

Processes 2024, 12(10), 2068; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102068 - 24 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1270

Abstract

Microbial contamination remains a global issue threatening human health. In this research, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were fabricated using Osmanthus fragrans flower extract as a reducing agent, and biochar derived from carbonizing waste barley distillers’ grain shells was used as a support to fabricate silver-loaded carbon (C-AgNP, C-Ag). PVA-CS-C-Ag-St gel was acquired by cross-linking polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), chitosan (CS), and starch (St) with glutaraldehyde (GA). Results from SEM, FTIR, and XRD demonstrated that PVA, CS, St, and C-Ag were successfully incorporated into the gel. The PVA-CS-C-Ag-S gel showcased excellent swelling and water retention properties, which had substantial antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus, with inhibition zones of 25.0 mm, 22.5 mm, and 18.0 mm, respectively. Finally, the antimicrobial analysis revealed that PVA-CS-C-Ag-St gel exhibited excellent antimicrobial properties against typical Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Overall, the PVA-CS-C-Ag-St gel holds great promise for food preservation and environmental pollution control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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14 pages, 2826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Properties of Dandelion Extract-Based PVA/CTS/DAN/CuNP Composite Gel

by Meizi Huang, Tingting Zhang and Yucai He

Processes 2024, 12(9), 1809; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091809 - 26 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1188

Abstract

Dandelion extract is a reducing agent, and CuSO₄∙5H₂O was used as a carrier to create copper nanoparticles (CuNPs). A novel polyvinyl alcohol–chitosan–dandelion–CuNP (PVA/CTS/DAN/CuNP) gel was acquired by cross-linking Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and chitosan (CTS) solution. Its structure was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The PVA/CTS/DAN/CuNP gels manifested good stability, recycling ability, swelling properties, and biocompatibility. Using the agar diffusion method, the diameters of the inhibition zone of the composite gel against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa could be over 21 mm. In conclusion, the PVA/CTS/DAN/CuNP composite gel had good antibacterial performance, which has a high potential for application in microbial contamination treatment and environmental protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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13 pages, 7368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antimicrobial and Photocatalytic Activities of Selenium Nanoparticles Synthesized from Elaeagnus indica Leaf Extract

by Dhatchanamoorthi Indhira, Arumugam Aruna, Krishnamoorthy Manikandan, Mohammed F. Albeshr, Abdulwahed Fahad Alrefaei, Ramachandran Vinayagam, Arumugam Kathirvel, Selvaraj Ranjith Priyan, Govindan Suresh Kumar and Ramalingam Srinivasan

Processes 2023, 11(4), 1107; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11041107 - 4 Apr 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3351

Abstract

Selenium nanoparticles (Se NPs) have recently received much interest due to their low toxicity, high bioavailability, and wide applications. This study synthesized Se NPs using selenious acid as a starting material and leaf extract from Elaeagnus indica as a reducing agent. Spectroscopic and electron microscopy investigations have demonstrated the production of aggregated amorphous Se NPs with phytochemicals. Furthermore, the reduction of selenious acid into Se NPs by phytochemicals present in the leaf extract of E. indica was confirmed in a prominent band at 269 nm in the UV-visible spectrum. The biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles have a 10–15 nm particle size distribution. The agar well diffusion assay exhibited remarkable dose-dependent, wide-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy of the Se NPs against all the tested microorganisms. Moreover, the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (10 µg/mL) was noted against Salmonella Typhimurium and Fusarium oxysporum. The prepared Se NPs degraded methylene blue dye by about 89% after 6 h of exposure to sunlight. In conclusion, the synthesis of Se NPs using E. indica leaf extract shows promise as a method for producing Se NPs with significant antimicrobial activity and potential for methylene blue photodegradation. These properties make them potentially valuable in various fields, including water treatment and biomedical applications, in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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Review

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24 pages, 1076 KiB

Open AccessReview

Green Tea Polyphenols in Wound Healing: Therapeutic Mechanisms, Potential Applications and Challenges in Commercial Use for Diabetic Wound Healing

by Syeda Attiqa Tajammal, Austin Coffey and Shiau Pin Tan

Processes 2025, 13(3), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030653 - 25 Feb 2025

Viewed by 998

Abstract

Wound healing remains a critical challenge in healthcare, especially with the increasing prevalence of diabetes and its associated complications, such as diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs). Delayed wound healing in diabetic patients is attributed to several factors, with a pathophysiology that is diverse and multifaceted, including decreased immune responses, microvascular dysfunction, oxidative stress and impaired collagen synthesis. Additionally, the development of an infection at the wound site further complicates and hinders the healing process, especially in DFUs. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a potent bioactive compound found in green tea, has shown promising effects in modulating various stages of wound healing by its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial properties in vitro and in vivo. This review discusses delayed wound healing in diabetic wounds, while highlighting the therapeutic potential of GT/EGCG in different stages of wound healing, including in diabetic wounds both in vitro and in vivo. Novel applications such as GT-/EGCG-loaded wound dressings have demonstrated significant positive impacts on wound healings, including in diabetic wounds, both in in vitro and in vivo studies. Despite its therapeutic potential, the commercial application of green tea in wound care faces significant challenges, including issues of bioavailability, stability, cytotoxicity, production costs, the lack of in-depth and complete in vivo studies and, most importantly, the lack of clinical trials. By consolidating current knowledge and identifying gaps, this review aims to inspire future research and innovations in using green tea for effective wound management and potential use in diabetic patients and DFUs, if the positive results from animal in vivo studies are equally effective in human clinical studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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33 pages, 10518 KiB

Open AccessReview

Green Medicine: Advancing Antimicrobial Solutions with Diverse Terrestrial and Marine Plant-Derived Compounds

by Du-Min Jo, Nazia Tabassum, Do Kyung Oh, Seok-Chun Ko, Kyung Woo Kim, Dongwoo Yang, Ji-Yul Kim, Gun-Woo Oh, Grace Choi, Dae-Sung Lee, Seul-Ki Park, Young-Mog Kim and Fazlurrahman Khan

Processes 2024, 12(11), 2316; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12112316 - 22 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1901

Abstract

Infectious diseases continue to cause global morbidity and mortality. The rise of drug-resistant pathogens is a major challenge to modern medicine. Plant-based antimicrobials may solve this issue; hence, this review discussed in detail plant-sourced antimicrobial drugs as an alternative toward bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. Plant-derived chemicals from various sources such as marine, medicinal, and non-medicinal sources have diverse antimicrobial properties. Complex chemical profiles from these sources allow these molecules to interact with several targets in the microbial pathogens. Due to their multi-component composition, these compounds are more effective and less likely to acquire resistance than single-target antibiotics. Medicinal herbs have long been used for their antimicrobial properties; however, non-medicinal plants have also been identified for their antimicrobial properties. Other interesting new pathways for the identification of antimicrobials include marine plants, which contain a wide variety of metabolites that are both distinct and varied. We have conducted a thorough literature search for the medicinal, non-medicinal, and marine plant-derived molecules with antimicrobial roles from databases which include Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science. The review also discussed the synergistic potential of combining these plant-derived compounds with traditional antimicrobial drugs to attenuate the microbial pathogenesis. Based on the existing research and advancements, the review article emphasizes the importance of continuing research into plant-based antimicrobials from these many sources and integrating them with existing therapies to combat the rising threat of drug-resistant infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobials in Plants: From Traditional Medicine to Modern Therapeutic Agents)

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