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Special Issue "Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites"

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 28434

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Theodoros Rousakis

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, GR-67 100 Xanthi, Greece
Interests: repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete elements and masonry walls with fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs); three-dimensional dynamic finite element analysis of repaired and strengthened structural elements and structures; resilience upgrade of RC structures
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Prof. Dr. Alper Ilki

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Co-Guest Editor

Structural and Earthquake Engineering Laboratory, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey
Interests: structural engineering; reinforced concrete structures; masonry structures; seismic retrofit with advanced materials; seismic performance assessment
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Prof. Dr. Arkadiusz Kwiecień

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Co-Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, Politechnika Krakowska, Krakow, Poland
Interests: concrete reinforcement; laminates
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Dr. Matija Gams

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Co-Guest Editor

Chair of Structural and Earthquake Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: earthquake engineering; masonry structures; testing; structural assessment and retrofitting; numerical modelling
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Prof. Dr. Panagiotis Spyridis

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Co-Guest Editor

Architektur und Bauingenieurwesen, TU Dortmund University, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
Interests: tunnels; fastenings; concrete; reliability; life cycle
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Special Issue Information

The available innovative materials and intervention techniques—namely externally bonded reinforcements such as fiber-reinforced polymers and polymer resin injection inside cracks—are widely used to rehabilitate structural members (especially reinforced concrete and masonry) in addition to other conventional methods. Polymer-based materials and adhesives are used in structural connections and interfaces as well as in mechanical anchoring. Highly deformable polymer joints are among several innovative techniques aiming to engage different structural components and ensure their desirable interaction towards ductile and safer behavior of the structures.

Successful prediction of the reduced service life of structural systems and timely damage identification are crucial in meeting the required safety and resilience levels. On the other hand, sustainable, durable, and resilient retrofit materials and techniques are of high importance in this task, in which polymers and polymer-based materials are highly involved. Further, advanced multiphysics, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary modeling and analyses through dynamic or static numerical approaches provide unique insights and facilitate efficient innovative retrofit details while reducing experimental validation costs. Each solution needs to also realistically evaluated and the effects of various sources of uncertainties mitigated, such as interacting loads and environmental actions or natural hazards, the performance of novel and aging or exposed materials, the predictive accuracy of models used, and the construction quality. Under these circumstances, the structural assessment of the system prior to and after the intervention requires techniques and concepts with advanced reliability. This Special Issue aims at providing the engineering community with a collection of high-quality and peer-reviewed papers addressing different aspects of Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites.

Keywords

resilience
retrofit
polymer-based intervention materials
polymer composites
advanced static and dynamic 3-dimensional numerical analytical approaches
structural health monitoring
damage detection techniques
life cycle assessment
performance-based design
performance indicators
safety and reliability
fastenings/anchorages

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly, High-Ductility Slag/Fly-Ash-Based Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) Reinforced with PE Fibers

Eskinder Desta Shumuye

Jie Liu

Weiwen Li

and

Zike Wang

Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1760; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14091760 - 26 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1602

Abstract

Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) are a special class of ultra-ductile fiber-reinforced cementitious composites containing a significant amount of short discontinuous fibers. The distinctive tensile strain-hardening behavior of ECCs is the result of a systematic design based on the micromechanics of the fiber, matrix, and fiber–matrix interface. However, ECCs require extensive cement content, which is inconsistent with the goal of sustainable and green building materials. Consequently, the objective of this study is to investigate the mechanical performance of slag/fly-ash-based engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) reinforced with polyethylene (PE) fiber under axial compressive loading, as well as direct tensile and flexural strength tests. The composites’ microstructure and mineralogical composition were analyzed using images obtained from scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray energy diffraction spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The experimental results reveal that a slag-containing composite mixture shows strain-hardening behavior and comparable ductility properties to those of fly-ash-based composite mixtures. A ternary system of binder materials with 5% and 15% slag can increase the compressive strength of ECC by 3.5% and 34.9%, respectively, compared to slag-free ECC composite. Moreover, the microstructural results show that the slag-based cementitious matrix has a more closely cross-linked and dense microstructure at the matrix–aggregate interface. In addition, the concentration of particles on the surface of the fibers was higher in the slag-based cementitious composites than in the fly ash-based composite. This supports the concept that there is a stronger bonding between the fibers and matrix in the slag-based cementitious matrix than in fly-ash-based matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Multilateral Assessment of Anchorage Bond Characteristics in Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete

and

Polymers 2022, 14(7), 1411; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14071411 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1251

Abstract

Anchorage to concrete is a recurring application in construction. For such applications, bonded anchors, formed by means of a polymer adhesive injection into a borehole, are a widely used product due to their flexibility in regards to the construction logistics and positioning of the attached element as well as high load capacities. At the same time, fibre-reinforced concrete is the material of choice for many engineering applications where anchors have to be installed. Moreover, the use of steel fibre-reinforced concrete is likely to increase, since it now falls in the scope of the second-generation Eurocode 2 (exp. 2023). Therefore, the condition of the anchor installation borehole—mainly the roughness and grip of its internal surface—is known to play a critical role in the stress transfer from the attached component, through the fastening and into the concrete, and, hence, to the load-bearing performance. At the same time, drilling through the steel fibre reinforcement, along with the accelerated wear of the drilling tools, can in turn influence the borehole’s roughness and the overall installation quality. Furthermore, steel fibre may lead to an additional local stiffening of the concrete where the anchor is installed. These complex elements are discussed herein on the basis of multiple tests on anchors in plain and steel fibre concrete, as well as numerical analyses. The results indicate particular aspects of bonded anchor design and product certification for different polymer-based construction adhesives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Quantification of the Influence of Concrete Width per Fiber Strand on the Splitting Crack Failure of Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC)

Markus Beßling

and

Jeanette Orlowsky

Polymers 2022, 14(3), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14030489 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

The composite material textile reinforced concrete (TRC) requires a high bond performance between the fiber strand and the concrete matrix. While the influence of the textile on bond behavior is well known, in this publication the influence of the concrete matrix is investigated by means of single-sided pull-out tests. The results of the presented study show dependence between the concrete strength and bond performance of the composite material. When a concrete of a higher-strength class is used, the bond-flow–pull-out distance curve shifts upward independent of the textile geometry and the yarn impregnation. A simplified model is presented to predict the occurrence of a crack along the fiber strand. This model serves as a basis to investigate the correlation between concrete width per fiber strand and resistance against a splitting crack. The effective concrete tensile strength decreases to about 35% when the concrete width is increased from 10 mm to 50 mm. To quantify the decrease, a mathematical relationship, which describes the test results independent of textile and concrete type, is proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Effect of Stirrups on Plate End Debonding in Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with Fiber Reinforced Polymers

Abdulaziz I. Al-Negheimish

Ahmed K. El-Sayed

Mohammed A. Al-Saawani

and

Abdulrahman M. Alhozaimy

Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3322; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193322 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1439

Abstract

Plate end (PE) debonding is one of the critical debonding failure modes that may occur in reinforced concrete (RC) beams strengthened with externally bonded fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs). This study investigated the effect of internal steel stirrups on the PE debonding failure load of FRP-strengthened RC beams. The dimensions of the beams were 3400 × 400 × 200 mm. The beams were strengthened with carbon FRP (CFRP) sheets bonded to the soffit of the beams. The beams were divided into two series based on the distance of the cutoff point of the CFRP sheets from the nearest support. This distance was 50 mm or 300 mm, and the amount of steel stirrups was varied in terms of varying the stirrup diameter and spacing. The beams were simply supported and tested under four-point bending. The test results indicate that the effect of stirrups on the load carrying capacity of the beams was more pronounced for the beams with CFRP sheets extended close to the supports. It was also indicated that beams with larger amounts of stirrups failed in PE debonding by concrete cover separation while beams with lower amounts of stirrups failed in PE by either PE interfacial debonding or critical diagonal crack-induced debonding. The beams were analyzed using several analytical models from design guidelines and the literature. The result of analysis indicates that most of the available models failed to reflect the effect of stirrups in predicting PE debonding failure load of the beams. On the other hand, the models of El-Sayed et al. and Teng and Yao were able to capture such an effect with the best predictions provided by El-Sayed et al. model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Cost and Effectiveness of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Solutions for the Large-Scale Mitigation of Seismic Risk in Reinforced Concrete Buildings

Ciro Del Vecchio

Marco Di Ludovico

and

Andrea Prota

Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2962; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172962 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1895

Abstract

Recent seismic events have demonstrated that the high vulnerability of existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings is mainly due to a lack of proper seismic detailing and the employment of poor-quality concrete. The reconstruction process following the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake highlighted that strengthening these buildings using solutions based on fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) can be both efficient and cost-effective. Indeed, their light weight, ease of installation, and the availability of specific guidelines and standards strongly supported their use in design practices, where they were the strengthening technique employed the most. This paper analyses and discusses the data on the actual cost and effectiveness of FRP solutions for seismic strengthening of existing RC buildings. To this end, the large database relating to the L’Aquila reconstruction process was used to select 130 RC buildings strengthened with FRP systems or FRPs combined with other techniques. Details of direct costs, including at the member level, and the types and percentages of strengthened members are analysed for both local and global strategies. This study thus provides readers with valuable data for use in cost-benefit analyses of FRP systems schemes to mitigate seismic risk at large-scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Modelling of Flexible Adhesives in Simple Mechanical States with the Use of the Darijani–Naghdabadi Strain Tensors and Kirchhoff–de Saint-Venant Elastic Potential

Paweł Szeptyński

Matija Gams

and

Arkadiusz Kwiecień

Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1639; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13101639 - 18 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1326

Abstract

Practical aspects of modelling of flexible adhesives with the energy conjugate measures of stress and strain of the Darijani–Naghdabadi (D-N) family are discussed. A possibility of description of materials exhibiting non-linear physical characteristics with the use of non-linear geometric relationships and linear elastic constitutive law is considered. Nominal stress vs. stretch relations are specified in cases of simple tension and simple shear with the use of the Kirchhoff–de Saint-Venant elastic potential and D-N energy conjugate stress and strain measures. Obtained theoretical estimates were compared with experimental results of simple tension and simple shear tests performed on Sika PM polyurethane (Cracow, Sika Poland). The deformation rate was fixed in order to minimize the influence of viscosity. Values of parameters

α, β

in the definition of the D-N strain tensor were optimized in order to provide good agreement between model predictions and experimental results. Observed discrepancies indicate that the proposed approach is not appropriate for constitutive modelling of the PM polymer. The presented approach is proposed to be used as a simple design model providing practical formulas describing the behavior of materials of non-linear characteristics in chosen mechanical states. Admissible values of exponents

α, β

are discussed regarding its bijectivity in a limited range of variation of principal stretches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Seismic Protection of RC Buildings by Polymeric Infill Wall-Frame Interface

Ahmet Tugrul Akyildiz

Alicja Kowalska-Koczwara

and

Łukasz Hojdys

Polymers 2021, 13(10), 1577; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13101577 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2092

Abstract

This paper is aimed at investigating the usage of flexible joints in masonry infilled walls surrounded by reinforced concrete (RC) frames. For this purpose, a real-size specimen was numerically created and exposed to the seismic loads. In order to evaluate both in-plane and out-of-plane performances of the infill walls, the system was chosen as a box shaped three-dimensional structure. In total, three different one-story constructions, which have single bays in two perpendicular directions, were modeled. The first type is the bare-frame without the infill walls, which was determined as a reference system. The second and third types of buildings are conventional mortar joint and PolyUrethane Flexible Joint (PUFJ) implemented ones, respectively. The influence of these joints on the material level are investigated in detail. Furthermore, general building dynamic characteristics were extracted by means of acceleration and displacement results as well as frequency domain mode shapes. Analyses revealed that PUFJ implementation on such buildings has promising outcomes and helps to sustain structural stability against the detrimental effects of earthquakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Novel Bending Test Method for Polymer Railway Sleeper Materials

and

Polymers 2021, 13(9), 1359; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13091359 - 21 Apr 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4139

Abstract

Alternative sleeper technologies have been developed to address the significant need for the replacement of deteriorating timber railway sleepers. The review of the literature indicates that the railway sleepers might fail while in service, despite passing the evaluation tests of the current composite sleeper standards which indicated that these tests do not represent in situ sleeper on ballast. In this research, a new five-point bending test is developed to evaluate the flexural behaviour of timber replacement sleeper technologies supported by ballast. Due to the simplicity, acceptance level of evaluation accuracy and the lack of in-service behaviour of alternative sleepers, this new testing method is justified with the bending behaviour according to the Beam on Elastic Foundation theory. Three timber replacement sleeper technologies—plastic, synthetic composites and low-profile prestressed concrete sleepers in addition to timber sleepers—were tested under service loading condition to evaluate the suitability of the new test method. To address the differences in the bending of the sleepers due to their different modulus of elasticities, the most appropriate material for the middle support was also determined. Analytical equations of the bending moments with and without middle support settlement were also developed. The results showed that the five-point static bending test could induce the positive and negative bending moments experienced by railway sleepers under a train wheel load. It was also found that with the proposed testing spans, steel-EPDM rubber is the most suitable configuration for low bending modulus sleepers such as plastic, steel-neoprene for medium modulus polymer sleepers and steel-steel for very high modulus sleepers such as concrete. Finally, the proposed bending moment equations can precisely predict the flexural behaviour of alternative sleepers under the five-point bending test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Deformable Polyurethane Joints and Fibre Grids for Resilient Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete Frames with Orthoblock Brick Infills

and

Aleksandra Bogdanovic

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2869; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122869 - 30 Nov 2020

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2916

Abstract

The behaviour of reinforced concrete frames with masonry wall infills is influenced a lot by the stiffness and strength difference between the frame and the infill, causing early detrimental damage to the infill or to the critical concrete columns. The paper reports the results from shake table seismic tests on a full-scale reinforced concrete (RC) frame building with modified hollow clay block (orthoblock brick) infill walls, within INMASPOL SERA Horizon 2020 project. The building received innovative resilient protection using Polyurethane Flexible Joints (PUFJs) made of polyurethane resin (PU), applied at the frame-infill interface in different schemes. Further, PUs were used for bonding of glass fibre grids to the weak masonry substrate to form Fibre Reinforced Polyurethanes (FRPUs) as an emergency repair intervention. The test results showed enhancement in the in-plane and out-of-plane infill performance under seismic excitations. The results confirmed remarkable delay of significant infill damages at very high RC frame inter-story drifts as a consequence of the use of PUFJs. Further, the PUFJ protection enabled the resilient repair of the infill even after very high inter-story drift of the structure up to 3.7%. The applied glass FRPU system efficiently protected the damaged infills against collapse under out-of-plane excitation while they restored large part of their in-plane stiffness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Durability of PS-Polyurethane Dedicated for Composite Strengthening Applications in Masonry and Concrete Structures

and

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2830; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122830 - 28 Nov 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1905

Abstract

Polyurethane flexible joints (PUFJ) and fiber reinforced polyurethanes (FRPU) have shown great potential in the repair and protection of masonry and concrete structures. However, some questions have been raised about the durability of such solutions. The accelerated weathering and thermal stability tests carried out so far have shown the mechanical stability of PS-polyurethane in temperatures up to 100 °C and some UV-induced surface degradation. The paper reports the results from tensile tests of PS-polyurethane, used in the technologies mentioned above after being subjected to aging in different corrosive factors, a thermal analysis of unaged polymer which consists of DSC-TGA and dilatometry studies, and SEM-microscopy observation of the specimens with the indication of the elemental composition (EDS). PS-polyurethane showed low sensitivity to weathering with exposition to UV-radiation, some reactiveness to aqueous environments of a different chemical nature, and resistivity to soil and freezing in both air and water. SEM observations indicated changes in the composition of mineral fillers as the main effect of immersion in different water solutions. DSC-TGA studies showed the thermal stability of PS-polyurethane up to 200 °C and degradation proceeding in five stages. Dilatometry studies revealed that the first-degree thermal degradation over 200 °C causes a serious loss of mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Ultimate Strain for Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Columns Confined with Fiber Reinforced Polymers under Cyclic Axial Compression

Theodora D. Fanaradelli

and

Theodoros C. Rousakis

Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2691; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112691 - 15 Nov 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2062

Abstract

This paper investigates the crucial design parameters for the prediction of the ultimate axial compressive deformation of reinforced concrete columns externally confined with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) materials. Numerous test results of available columns with a square and rectangular section under cyclic axial loading were gathered in an advanced database. Herein, the database is enriched with necessary design parameters in order to address the unique tensile strain field variation of the FRP jacket. Since there is a lack of consequent recording of the FRP strain field in existing experiments, three dimensional pseudodynamic finite element analyses results from several characteristic cases of tested columns are utilized to address this gap. Therefore, a hybrid experimental–analytical database is formed, including several critical FRP strains, steel strains and deformations. A modified model is proposed to predict the ultimate axial strain for reinforced concrete columns externally confined with FRP materials. The proposed model aims to address indirectly the effects of the internal steel cage, concrete section shape and of their interaction with the external FRP jacket on the critical tensile strain of the FRP jacket at failure of the column. The predictive performance of the model over the available tests of (reinforced concrete) RC columns under cyclic compression is remarkably improved when compared against the performance of other existing models. It provides predictions with average ratio (AR) of 0.96 and average absolute error (AAE) of 36.5% and therefore may contribute to safer seismic resistant redesign. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

3D Finite Element Pseudodynamic Analysis of Deficient RC Rectangular Columns Confined with Fiber Reinforced Polymers under Axial Compression

Theodora D. Fanaradelli

and

Theodoros C. Rousakis

Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2546; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112546 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2203

Abstract

This paper utilizes the advanced potential of pseudodynamic three-dimensional finite-element modeling to study the axial mechanical behavior of square and rectangular reinforced concrete columns, confined with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) jackets and continuous composite ropes in seismic applications. The rigorous and versatile Riedel-Hiermaier-Thoma (RHT) material model for concrete is suitably calibrated/modified to reproduce the variable behavior of characteristic retrofitted columns with deficient internal steel reinforcement detailing, suffering nonuniform local concrete cracking and crushing or bulging and bar buckling. Similarly, the 3D FRP jacket or rope confinement models may account for damage distribution, local fracture initiation and different interfacial bonding conditions. The satisfactory accuracy of the reproduced experimental stress-strain envelope behavior enables the analytical investigation of several critical design parameters that are difficult to measure reliably during experiments. Additional parametric analyses are conducted to assess the effects of steel quality. The significant variation of the field of developed strains on the FRP jacket at the ultimate and of the developed strains and deformations on steel cages among different columns are thoroughly investigated. This advanced analytical insight may be directly utilized to address missing critical parameters and allow for more reliable FRP retrofit design of seismic resistant reinforced concrete (RC) columns. Further, it allows for arbitrary 3D seismic analysis of columns (loading, unloading, cyclic or loading rate effects or preloading) or addresses predamages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Effectiveness of Polyurethane Flexible Adhesive in Reduction of Structural Vibrations

Natalia Lasowicz

Arkadiusz Kwiecień

and

Robert Jankowski

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2364; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102364 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1950

Abstract

The aim of the present study is to consider the idea of using polyurethane flexible adhesive in to reduce the vibrations in structures exposed to dynamic loads and evaluate their damping properties in relation to large deformations. Firstly, two aluminium cantilever beams, simulating structural elements (without and with polyurethane layer in the form of tape), were analysed, in order to check the damping of the unconstrained polymer layer. In the second stage of the study, a composite beam consisting of two aluminium flat beams bonded with polymer adhesive was considered, so as to check the damping of the constrained polymer layer. Dynamic parameters, such as modes of free vibrations, corresponding natural frequencies and damping ratios, were determined and compared. The third stage of the investigation was aimed at solving the problem of the additional mass of the applied polymer layer, which influences the frequencies and damping of the tested structure. A special separating procedure is proposed that makes it possible to calculate the corrected real values of the polymer layer’s damping. The results of the study clearly show that the response of the composite aluminium beam with and without polymer adhesive layer is mainly influenced by the layers’ thickness and the large strain deformation, in terms of its damping characteristics. The use of polymer adhesive layers in constrained and unconstrained conditions leads to a significant reduction in the vibrations of tested beams, while preserving their stiffness at nearly the same level. The applied analysis procedure made it possible for us to separate the damping properties of the analysed polymer layers and evaluate them independently with respect to the influence of integrated structural elements on damping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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