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18 pages, 4488 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Low-Cost Miscanthus × giganteus to Valuable Bacterial Nanocellulose: A Complete Technological Cycle

by Nadezhda A. Shavyrkina, Evgenia K. Gladysheva, Anastasia A. Zenkova and Ekaterina A. Skiba

Polymers 2025, 17(21), 2890; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212890 - 29 Oct 2025

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Abstract

The concept of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) production from low-cost cellulosic raw materials is evolving across the world, as it reduces the production cost of this valuable polymer and expands its technical applications. Miscanthus × giganteus is a widely recognized energy crop with high [...] Read more.

The concept of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) production from low-cost cellulosic raw materials is evolving across the world, as it reduces the production cost of this valuable polymer and expands its technical applications. Miscanthus × giganteus is a widely recognized energy crop with high cellulose content, but its potential as a feedstock for BNC production is underexplored. The cellulose content in the biomass of Miscanthus × giganteus from the Russian breeding stock was 54% in the present study. The Miscanthus × giganteus biomass was subjected to chemical pretreatment by four different techniques: classical alkaline delignification and three authors’ own methods using diluted nitric acid solutions at atmospheric pressure. The resultant substrates were then enzymatically hydrolyzed under identical conditions, yielding carbohydrate-based culture media on which bacterial nanocellulose biosynthesis was carried out using a SCOBY symbiotic culture. All the four chemical pretreatment methods were found to be extremely efficient because they provide a 28–31-fold increase in the biomass reactivity to enzymatic hydrolysis compared to untreated Miscanthus × giganteus. This study clearly demonstrates that it is most expedient to carry out the biomass pretreatment in a single stage using a dilute nitric acid solution in the BNC production technology from Miscanthus × giganteus. In this case, the substrate yield from the feedstock for subsequent hydrolysis was 50%, the recovery of reducing sugars from the Miscanthus × giganteus biomass reached its maximal value (65.2%), and the yield of BNC was 1.1–1.3 times higher compared to the other three methods of biomass pretreatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 3117 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural and Functional Enhancement of Halal Gelatin Capsules Reinforced with Corn Husk Cellulose

by Flora Elvistia Firdaus and Aurelia Kinanti

Polymers 2025, 17(20), 2803; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17202803 - 21 Oct 2025

Viewed by 477

Abstract

Corn husk-derived cellulose (CHC) was incorporated into gelatin–cassava starch (CS) capsule formulations to evaluate its effectiveness as a sustainable reinforcing agent. The addition of CHC enhanced the structural cohesion of the films and improved their resistance to storage-related temperature–humidity stress, while maintaining desirable [...] Read more.

Corn husk-derived cellulose (CHC) was incorporated into gelatin–cassava starch (CS) capsule formulations to evaluate its effectiveness as a sustainable reinforcing agent. The addition of CHC enhanced the structural cohesion of the films and improved their resistance to storage-related temperature–humidity stress, while maintaining desirable flexibility. Consistent with this, the films retained mechanical performance and appearance under ICH-aligned storage conditions, indicating better endurance during storage and processing. Disintegration performance remained within pharmacopeial requirements in both acidic and neutral media, confirming the suitability of the capsules for oral delivery applications. Surface assessment revealed more uniform morphology and fewer irregularities in the capsule matrix when CHC was present, suggesting strong compatibility among the cellulose, gelatin, and starch components. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that CHC is an effective plant-based reinforcement capable of strengthening gelatin capsules without compromising functional performance. The use of corn husk, an abundant agricultural residue, also highlights a sustainable pathway for the development of halal-compliant capsule shells and contributes to the broader advancement of eco-friendly biopolymer systems in pharmaceutical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 4987 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Characterization of Sustainable Biocomposites from Wood Fibers, Spent Coffee Grounds, and Ammonium Lignosulfonate

by Viktor Savov, Petar Antov, Alexsandrina Kostadinova-Slaveva, Jansu Yusein, Viktoria Dudeva, Ekaterina Todorova and Stoyko Petrin

Polymers 2025, 17(19), 2589; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17192589 - 24 Sep 2025

Viewed by 572

Abstract

Coffee processing generates large volumes of spent coffee grounds (SCGs), which contain 30–40% hemicellulose, 8.6–13.3% cellulose, and 25–33% lignin, making them a promising lignin-rich filler for biocomposites. Conventional wood composites rely on urea-formaldehyde (UF), melamine–urea–formaldehyde (MUF), and phenol–formaldehyde resins (PF), which dominate 95% [...] Read more.

Coffee processing generates large volumes of spent coffee grounds (SCGs), which contain 30–40% hemicellulose, 8.6–13.3% cellulose, and 25–33% lignin, making them a promising lignin-rich filler for biocomposites. Conventional wood composites rely on urea-formaldehyde (UF), melamine–urea–formaldehyde (MUF), and phenol–formaldehyde resins (PF), which dominate 95% of the market. Although formaldehyde emissions from these resins can be mitigated through strict hygiene standards and technological measures, concerns remain due to their classification as category 1B carcinogens under EU regulations. In this study, fiber-based biocomposites were fabricated from thermomechanical wood fibers, SCGs, and ammonium lignosulfonate (ALS). SCGs and ALS were mixed in a 1:1 ratio and incorporated at 40–75% of the oven-dry fiber mass. Hot pressing was performed at 150 °C under 1.1–1.8 MPa to produce panels with a nominal density of 750 kg m⁻³, and we subsequently tested them for their physical properties (density, water absorption (WA), and thickness swelling (TS)), mechanical properties (modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR), and internal bond (IB) strength), and thermal behavior and biodegradation performance. A binder content of 50% yielded MOE ≈ 2707 N mm⁻² and MOR ≈ 22.6 N mm⁻², comparable to UF-bonded medium-density fiberboards (MDFs) for dry-use applications. Higher binder contents resulted in reduced strength and increased WA values. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG) revealed an inorganic residue of 2.9–8.5% and slower burning compared to the UF-bonded panels. These results demonstrate that SCGs and ALS can be co-utilized as a renewable, formaldehyde-free adhesive system for manufacturing wood fiber composites, achieving adequate performance for value-added practical applications while advancing sustainable material development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 804 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Photon-Based Techniques to Probe Structural and Phonon Dynamics in Bacterial Cellulose

by Levente Csóka and Bunsho Ohtani

Polymers 2025, 17(18), 2544; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17182544 - 20 Sep 2025

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Bacterial cellulose, a biopolymer synthesised by microorganisms, exhibits remarkable structural, optical, and electronic properties. This study utilised a range of photon- and electron-based techniques, including X-ray diffraction, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), photoacoustic spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, to thoroughly characterise [...] Read more.

Bacterial cellulose, a biopolymer synthesised by microorganisms, exhibits remarkable structural, optical, and electronic properties. This study utilised a range of photon- and electron-based techniques, including X-ray diffraction, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), photoacoustic spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, to thoroughly characterise BC. While XRD and NMR directly employ photons to probe the structure and composition, PAS indirectly converts absorbed photons into phonons to evaluate optoelectronic features. SEM revealed a dense nanofibrillar network with fibrils measuring 10–75 nm in diameter. XRD confirmed the crystalline nature of BC, identifying characteristic peaks associated with cellulose Iα. ¹H-NMR relaxation analysis differentiated between the ordered and disordered cellulose regions. PAS determined an optical bandgap of 2.97 eV and identified defect states between 3.6 and 2.9 eV, including a prominent peak at 3.35 eV, likely resulting from oxygen vacancies, hydroxyl modifications, or UV-induced rearrangements. These defects modify BC’s electronic structure, suggesting potential for bandgap engineering. The integration of these complementary techniques provides a multidimensional understanding of BC’s morphology, crystallinity, and electronic behaviour, underscoring its potential in bioelectronics, advanced composites, and biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 1876 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Physico-Mechanical Properties and Oxygen Permeability of Bacterial-Cellulose-Based Conduits

by Marina V. Parchaykina, Mikhail A. Baykov, Elvira S. Revina, Mikhail V. Shchankin and Viktor V. Revin

Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2123; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152123 - 31 Jul 2025

Viewed by 648

Abstract

The article is devoted to the study of the physico-mechanical properties and oxygen permeability of the examined conduits based on bacterial cellulose (BC) obtained using the Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans B-11267 strain. BC is considered a promising material for regenerative biomedicine. The chemical structure, crystallinity [...] Read more.

The article is devoted to the study of the physico-mechanical properties and oxygen permeability of the examined conduits based on bacterial cellulose (BC) obtained using the Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans B-11267 strain. BC is considered a promising material for regenerative biomedicine. The chemical structure, crystallinity degree and porosity of BC-based conduits were characterized by means of infrared spectroscopy (IR-spectroscopy), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic-force microscopy (AFM). Both the Young’s modulus and determined tension showed the high strength of the obtained conduits. Their oxygen permeability exceeded the values for the existing analogues, and lack of cytotoxicity indicated biocompatibility, confirming that BC-based conduits may be used for biomedical purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 7164 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Antimicrobial Blends of Bacteria Nanocellulose Derived from Plastic Waste and Polyhydroxybutyrate Enhanced with Essential Oils

by Everton Henrique Da Silva Pereira, Marija Nicevic, Eduardo Lanzagorta Garcia, Vicente Fróes Moritz, Zeliha Ece Ozcelik, Buket Alkan Tas and Margaret Brennan Fournet

Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3490; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243490 - 14 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1753

Abstract

The escalating global concern regarding plastic waste accumulation and its detrimental environmental impact has driven the exploration of sustainable alternatives to conventional petroleum-based plastics. This study investigates the development of antimicrobial blends of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) derived from plastic waste and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHB), [...] Read more.

The escalating global concern regarding plastic waste accumulation and its detrimental environmental impact has driven the exploration of sustainable alternatives to conventional petroleum-based plastics. This study investigates the development of antimicrobial blends of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) derived from plastic waste and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHB), further enhanced with essential oils. The antimicrobial activity of the resulting BNC/PHB blends was tested in vitro against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans. The incorporation of essential oils, particularly cinnamon oil, significantly enhanced the antimicrobial properties of the BNC/PHB blends. The BNC with 5% PHB blend exhibited the highest antifungal inhibition against C. albicans at 90.25%. Additionally, blends with 2% and 10% PHB also showed antifungal activity, inhibiting 68% of C. albicans growth. These findings highlight the potential of incorporating essential oils into BNC/PHB blends to create effective antimicrobial materials. The study concludes that enhancing the antimicrobial properties of BNC/PHB significantly broadens its potential applications across various sectors, including wound dressings, nanofiltration masks, controlled-release fertilizers, and active packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 68807 KB

Open AccessArticle

Structural and Viscoelastic Properties of Bacterial Cellulose Composites: Implications for Prosthetics

by Natalia Pogorelova, Daniil Parshin, Anna Lipovka, Alexey Besov, Ilya Digel and Pyotr Larionov

Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3200; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223200 - 18 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1953

Abstract

This study investigates the morphological, mechanical, and viscoelastic properties of bacterial cellulose (BC) hydrogels synthesized by the microbial consortium Medusomyces gisevii. BC gel films were produced under static (S) or bioreactor (BioR) conditions. Additionally, an anisotropic sandwich-like composite BC film was developed [...] Read more.

This study investigates the morphological, mechanical, and viscoelastic properties of bacterial cellulose (BC) hydrogels synthesized by the microbial consortium Medusomyces gisevii. BC gel films were produced under static (S) or bioreactor (BioR) conditions. Additionally, an anisotropic sandwich-like composite BC film was developed and tested, consisting of a rehydrated (S-RDH) BC film synthesized under static conditions, placed between two BioR-derived BC layers. Sample characterization was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), rheometry, and uniaxial stretching tests. To our knowledge, this is the first study to combine uniaxial and rheological tests for BC gels. AFM and SEM revealed that the organization of BC fibrils (

80 \pm 20

nm in diameter) was similar to that of collagen fibers (

96 \pm 31

nm) found in human dura mater, suggesting potential implications for neurosurgical practice. Stretching tests demonstrated that the drying and rehydration of BC films resulted in a 2- to 8-fold increase in rigidity compared to other samples. This trend was consistent across both small and large deformations, regardless of direction. Mechanically, the composite (BioR+S-RDH) outperformed BC hydrogels synthesized under static and bioreactor conditions by approx. 26%. The composite material (BioR+S-RDH) exhibited greater anisotropy in the stretching tests compared to S-RDH, but less than the BioR-derived hydrogels, which had anisotropy coefficients ranging from

1.29

to

2.03

. BioR+S-RDH also demonstrated the most consistent viscoelastic behavior, indicating its suitability for withstanding shear stress and potential use in prosthetic applications. These findings should provide opportunities for further research and medical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 6604 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Lyocell Fibers from Solutions of Miscanthus Cellulose

by Igor S. Makarov, Vera V. Budaeva, Yulia A. Gismatulina, Ekaterina I. Kashcheyeva, Vladimir N. Zolotukhin, Polina A. Gorbatova, Gennady V. Sakovich, Markel I. Vinogradov, Ekaterina E. Palchikova, Ivan S. Levin and Mikhail V. Azanov

Polymers 2024, 16(20), 2915; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16202915 - 16 Oct 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1902

Abstract

Both annual (cotton, flax, hemp, etc.) and perennial (trees and grasses) plants can serve as a source of cellulose for fiber production. In recent years, the perennial herbaceous plant miscanthus has attracted particular interest as a popular industrial plant with enormous potential. This [...] Read more.

Both annual (cotton, flax, hemp, etc.) and perennial (trees and grasses) plants can serve as a source of cellulose for fiber production. In recent years, the perennial herbaceous plant miscanthus has attracted particular interest as a popular industrial plant with enormous potential. This industrial crop, which contains up to 57% cellulose, serves as a raw material in the chemical and biotechnology sectors. This study proposes for the first time the utilization of miscanthus, namely Miscanthus Giganteus “KAMIS”, to generate spinning solutions in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide. Miscanthus cellulose’s properties were identified using standard methods for determining the constituent composition, including also IR and atomic emission spectroscopy. The dry-jet wet method was used to make fibers from cellulose solutions with an appropriate viscosity/elasticity ratio. The structural characteristics of the fibers were studied using IR and scanning electron microscopy, as well as via X-ray structural analysis. The mechanical and thermal properties of the novel type of hydrated cellulose fibers demonstrated the possibility of producing high-quality fibers from miscanthus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 5919 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bacterial Cellulose Production within a Circular Economy Framework: Utilizing Organic Waste

by Cristina Moreno-Díaz, Salvador González-Arranz and Carmen Martínez-Cerezo

Polymers 2024, 16(19), 2735; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16192735 - 27 Sep 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4926

Abstract

Bacterial cellulose (BC) has emerged as a sustainable biomaterial with diverse industrial applications. This paper examines BC production through a circular economy framework, focusing on organic waste as a primary feedstock. It compares static and agitated cultivation methods for BC production, highlighting their [...] Read more.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) has emerged as a sustainable biomaterial with diverse industrial applications. This paper examines BC production through a circular economy framework, focusing on organic waste as a primary feedstock. It compares static and agitated cultivation methods for BC production, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Static cultivation using Gluconacetobacter xylinum yields high-quality cellulose films but is constrained by lower yields and longer incubation times. Agitated cultivation accelerates production but may affect fiber uniformity. This paper emphasizes sustainability by exploring organic waste materials such as coffee grounds, tea leaves, and food scraps as cost-effective nitrogen and carbon sources. These materials not only lower production costs but also support circular economy principles by converting waste into valuable products. BC produced from these waste sources retains key properties, making it suitable for applications in the textile and other industries. In addition, BC production can align with vegan principles, provided that all additives and processing methods are free of animal-derived components. The paper discusses BC’s potential to replace synthetic fibers in textiles and reduce environmental impact. Case studies show successful BC integration into textile products. In conclusion, this paper calls for more research to optimize BC production processes and explore new industrial applications. Using organic waste in BC production can help industries adopt sustainable practices, reduce environmental footprints, and create high-value materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 2819 KB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Characterization of Spherical Cellulose Nanocrystals Extracted from the Higher Cellulose Yield of the Jenfokie Plant: Morphological, Structural, and Thermal Properties

by Solomon Estifo Wossine, Ganesh Thothadri, Habtamu Beri Tufa, Wakshum Mekonnen Tucho, Adil Murtaza, Abhilash Edacherian and Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed

Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121629 - 8 Jun 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3427

Abstract

Scholars are looking for solutions to substitute hazardous substances in manufacturing nanocellulose from bio-sources to preserve the world’s growing environmental consciousness. During the past decade, there has been a notable increase in the use of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in modern science and nanotechnology [...] Read more.

Scholars are looking for solutions to substitute hazardous substances in manufacturing nanocellulose from bio-sources to preserve the world’s growing environmental consciousness. During the past decade, there has been a notable increase in the use of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in modern science and nanotechnology advancements because of their abundance, biocompatibility, biodegradability, renewability, and superior mechanical properties. Spherical cellulose nanocrystals (J–CNCs) were successfully synthesized from Jenfokie micro-cellulose (J–MC) via sulfuric acid hydrolysis in this study. The yield (up to 58.6%) and specific surface area (up to 99.64 m²/g) of J–CNCs were measured. A field emission gun–scanning electron microscope (FEG-SEM) was used to assess the morphology of the J–MC and J–CNC samples. The spherical shape nanoparticles with a mean nano-size of 34 nm for J–CNCs were characterized using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to determine the crystallinity index and crystallinity size of J–CNCs, up to 98.4% and 6.13 nm, respectively. The chemical composition was determined using a Fourier transform infrared (FT–IR) spectroscope. Thermal characterization of thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), and differential thermal analysis (DTA) was conducted to identify the thermal stability and cellulose pyrolysis behavior of both J–MC and J–CNC samples. The thermal analysis of J–CNC indicated lower thermal stability than J–MC. It was noted that J–CNC showed higher levels of crystallinity and larger crystallite sizes than J–MC, indicating a successful digestion and an improvement of the main crystalline structure of cellulose. The X-ray diffraction spectra and TEM images were utilized to establish that the nanocrystals’ size was suitable. The novelty of this work is the synthesis of spherical nanocellulose with better properties, chosen with a rich source of cellulose from an affordable new plant (studied for the first time) by stepwise water-retted extraction, continuing from our previous study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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11 pages, 5565 KB

Open AccessArticle

Green Strong Cornstalk Rind-Based Cellulose-PVA Aerogel for Oil Adsorption and Thermal Insulation

by Xiaoyang Yi, Zhongxu Zhang, Junfeng Niu, Hongyan Wang, Tiankun Li, Junjie Gong and Rongbo Zheng

Polymers 2024, 16(9), 1260; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16091260 - 1 May 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

Cellulose-based aerogel has attracted considerable attention for its excellent adsorption capacity, biodegradability, and renewability. However, it is considered eco-unfriendly due to defibrillation of agriculture waste and requires harmful/expensive chemical agents. In this study, cornstalk rind-based aerogel was obtained via the following steps: green [...] Read more.

Cellulose-based aerogel has attracted considerable attention for its excellent adsorption capacity, biodegradability, and renewability. However, it is considered eco-unfriendly due to defibrillation of agriculture waste and requires harmful/expensive chemical agents. In this study, cornstalk rind-based aerogel was obtained via the following steps: green H₂O₂/HAc delignification of cornstalk rind to obtain cellulose fibers, binding with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and freeze-drying treatment, and hydrophobic modification with stearic acid. The obtained aerogel showed high compressive strength (200 KPa), which is apparently higher (about 32 kPa) than NaClO-delignified cornstalk-based cellulose/PVA aerogel. Characterization of the obtained aerogel through SEM, water contact angle, etc., showed high porosity (95%), low density (0.0198 g/cm⁻³), and hydrophobicity (water contact angle, 159°), resulting in excellent n-hexane adsorption capacity (35 g/g), higher (about 29.5 g/g) than NaClO-delignified cornstalk-based cellulose/PVA aerogel. The adsorbed oil was recovered by the extrusion method, and the aerogel showed excellent recyclability in oil adsorption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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Review

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69 pages, 25043 KB

Open AccessReview

Hydrogels from Renewable Resources: Advances in 3D Networks Based on Cellulose and Hemicellulose

by Diana Elena Ciolacu

Polymers 2025, 17(20), 2760; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17202760 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 499

Abstract

In recent years, natural polymers have gained significant attention due to their abundance, biodegradability and versatility, offering a promising alternative to conventional synthetic polymers. Among natural polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose hold a special place, being the most abundant plant polysaccharides in nature, which [...] Read more.

In recent years, natural polymers have gained significant attention due to their abundance, biodegradability and versatility, offering a promising alternative to conventional synthetic polymers. Among natural polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose hold a special place, being the most abundant plant polysaccharides in nature, which serve as key structural materials in the synthesis of hydrogels. Cellulose has attracted significant attention in the development of hydrogels due to the fact that it confers desirable mechanical properties, high water absorption and biocompatibility. Hemicellulose, although with a more amorphous structure than cellulose, contains various functional groups that facilitate its chemical modification. With an environmentally friendly nature and low cost, these polysaccharides have gained major interest and are highly appreciated by both the academic and industrial communities. This review comprehensively presents recent advances in the design and development of hydrogels made from renewable biopolymers—cellulose and hemicellulose—providing an in-depth exploration of the information recorded over the past five years. The latest strategies for the synthesis of hydrogels, their formation mechanisms and their most important properties are analyzed and summarized in detail from the perspective of physical and chemical crosslinking. A comparative analysis is performed between these hydrogels, highlighting not only the advantages and disadvantages of each type of hydrogel but also the main challenges associated with the balance between mechanical strength, swelling capacity, biodegradability and cost-effectiveness. Finally, the advanced biomedical applications of these hydrogels in areas such as drug delivery, wound dressings and tissue engineering are presented in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)

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