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Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Networks and Gels".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2025 | Viewed by 5639

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Prof. Dr. Jelena Jovanović

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Institute of General and Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade,Studentski trg 12/V, 11158 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: polymers; composites; hydrogels; smart materils; synthesis; kinetics; physico-chemical processes
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Dr. Vesna V. Panić

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Innovation Center of Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: materials science; synthesis of hybrid polymeric materials; sustainable polymers; polymeric materials for biomedical applications
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Hydrogels present a relatively novel class of so-called smart materials, which have attract significant attention in many fields; thus, we are pleased to announce the Special Issue “Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications”.

Hydrogels are 3D networks of hydrophilic polymers that absorb large amounts of water, water solutions, and biological liquids

The aim of this Special Issue is to present up-to-date valuable achievements in all aspects of polymer hydrogels. This Special Issue will cover all innovative aspects of all kinds of polymeric hydrogels, such as multi-functional and stimuli-responsive hydrogels, composite hydrogels, and hybrid hydrogels.

Papers providing new hydrogel applications, studies of hydrogel behavior, and mathematical modeling of characteristic processes are preferable. Versatile methods and procedures used in hydrogel synthesis and characterization, including under conventional conditions (heating) and external fields (gamma-irradiation, microwaves, ultrasonic, etc.), are also wellcomed.

We hope that this topic will attract a wide readership and become a valuable resource for scientists working toward the further development of hydrogels. It is our pleasure to invite you to take part in this Special Issue and submit your work (full papers and reviews).

Prof. Dr. Jelena Jovanović
Dr. Vesna V. Panić
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

hydrogels
synthesis
swelling
stimuli-responsive

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 5204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical Characterization of Injectable Genipin-Crosslinked Gelatin–Kelulut Honey Hydrogels for Future Cutaneous Tissue Loss

by Raniya Razif, Nur Izzah Md Fadilah, Manira Maarof, Daniel Looi Qi Hao, Adzim Poh Yuen Wen and Mh Busra Fauzi

Polymers 2025, 17(9), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17091129 - 22 Apr 2025

Viewed by 258

Abstract

Chronic wounds, particularly those associated with conditions like diabetes, present significant challenges in healthcare due to prolonged healing and high susceptibility to infections. This study investigates the development of injectable hydrogels composed of genipin-crosslinked gelatin and Kelulut honey (KH) as novel biomaterials for wound healing applications. Hydrogels were prepared with varying concentrations (w/v) of gelatin (9% and 10%) and KH (0.1% and 0.5%), with genipin (0.1%) acting as a crosslinker. The physicochemical properties were extensively evaluated, including the swelling ratio, water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), contact angle, porosity, enzymatic degradation, and surface roughness. The results showed that KH incorporation significantly enhanced the swelling properties of the hydrogels, with the 9GE_0.1KH formulation demonstrating a swelling ratio of 742.07 ± 89.61% compared to 500% for the control 9GE formulation. The WVTR values for KH-incorporated hydrogels ranged from 1670.60 ± 236.87 g/m²h to 2438.92 ± 190.90 g/m²h, which were within the ideal range (1500–2500 g/m²h) for wound healing. Contact angle measurements indicated improved hydrophilicity, with 9GE_0.1KH showing a contact angle of 42.14° ± 7.52° compared to 60° ± 11.66° for the 10GE formulation. Biodegradation rates were slightly higher for KH-modified hydrogels (0.079 ± 0.006 mg/h for 9GE_0.1KH), but all remained within acceptable limits. These findings suggest that genipin-crosslinked gelatin-KH hydrogels offer a promising scaffold for enhanced wound healing and potential applications in tissue engineering and three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)

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18 pages, 5423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Cellulose Foam with Alumina Nanofibers

by Sirje Liukko, Katarina Dimic-Misic, Aleksandar Janackovic and Michael Gasik

Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1043; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081043 - 11 Apr 2025

Viewed by 327

Abstract

Foam-formed cellulose biocomposites provide a promising, innovative approach to creating lightweight and eco-friendly materials for utilization in packaging and insulation. This study investigates the production and characterization of temperature-resistant, mechanically stable cellulose fiber (CF) composite foams reinforced with alumina nanofibers (ANFs). To evaluate the impact of ANFs on rheology and drainage, CF suspensions were prepared at a concentration of 20 g/kg, with ANFs added at 2 wt% and 5 wt%. All foams exhibited shear-thinning behavior, with variations in flow characteristics influenced by ANF consistency and particle–bubble interactions. ANFs were integrated into the dry CF foam structure using two methods: (i) immersion in an ANF water suspension, and (ii) direct injection of the suspension into the foam matrix. Mechanical and thermal analyses of the dried CF foams with 2% ANFs demonstrated significant improvements in strength and thermal stability. Incorporating ANFs into CF-based foams enhances their rheological properties, improves mechanical and thermal performance, and reduces combustion rates. These results highlight the potential of ANF-reinforced CF foams for use in industries requiring biodegradable insulation and packaging materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)

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18 pages, 7310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Hydroxyapatite Additions on Alginate Gelation Kinetics During Cross-Linking

by Katarina Dimic-Misic, Monir Imani and Michael Gasik

Polymers 2025, 17(2), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17020242 - 19 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1230

Abstract

Alginate hydrogels have gathered significant attention in biomedical engineering due to their remarkable biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ability to encapsulate cells and bioactive molecules, but much less has been reported on the kinetics of gelation. Scarce experimental data are available on cross-linked alginates (AL) with bioactive components. The present study addressed a novel method for defining the crosslinking mechanism using rheological measurements for aqueous mixtures of AL and calcium chloride (CaCl₂) with the presence of hydroxyapatite (HAp) as filler particles. The time-dependent crosslinking behaviour of these mixtures was exploited using a plate–plate rheometer, when crosslinking occurs due to calcium ions (Ca²⁺) binding to the guluronic acid blocks within the AL polymer, forming a stable “egg-box” structure. To reveal the influence of HAp particles as filler on crosslinked sample morphology, after rheological measurement and crosslinking, crosslinked samples were freeze-dried and their morphology was assessed using an optical microscope and SEM. It was found that the addition of HAp particles, which are known to enhance the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of crosslinked AL gels, significantly decreased (usually rapidly) the interaction between the Ca²⁺ and AL chains. In this research, the physical “shielding” effect of HAp particles on the crosslinking of AL with Ca²⁺ ions has been observed for the first time, and its crosslinking behaviour was defined using rheological methods. After crosslinking and rheometer measurements, the samples were further evaluated for morphological properties and the observations were correlated with their dewatering properties. While the presence of HAp particles led to a slower crosslinking process and a more uniform development of the rheological parameters, it also led to a more uniform porosity and improved dewatering properties. The observed effects allow for a better understanding of the crosslinking process kinetics, which directly affects the physical and chemical properties of the AL gels. The shielding behaviour (retardation) of filler particles occurs when they physically or chemically block certain components in a mixture, delaying their interaction with other reactants. In hydrogel formulations, filler particles like hydroxyapatite (HAp) can act as barriers, adsorbing onto reactive components or creating physical separation, which slows the reaction rate and allows for controlled gelation or delayed crosslinking. This delayed reactivity is beneficial for precise control over the reaction timing, enabling the better manipulation of material properties such as crosslinking distribution, pore structure, and mechanical stability. In this research, the physical shielding effect of HAp particles was observed through changes in rheological properties during crosslinking and was dependent on the HAp concentration. The addition of HAp also enabled more uniform porosity and improved dewatering properties. The observed effects allow for a better understanding of the crosslinking process kinetics, which directly affects the physical and chemical properties of the AL gels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)

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15 pages, 435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Composite Packaging Material from Edible Oil By-Product Coated with Paraffin Wax for Dry Apricot Slice Packing Under a Modified Atmosphere

by Nevena Hromiš, Sanja Ostojić, Lato Pezo, Senka Popović, Zdravko Šumić, Anita Milić, Sunčica Kocić-Tanackov and Danijela Šuput

Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3583; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243583 - 21 Dec 2024

Viewed by 677

Abstract

Composite biopolymer hydrogel as food packaging material, apart from being environmentally favorable, faces high standards set upon food packaging materials. The feature that favors biopolymer film application is their low gas permeability under room conditions and lower relative humidity conditions. However, most biopolymer-based materials show high moisture sensitiveness and limited water vapor permeability, which limits their application for food packaging. In this paper, a new packaging material derived from an edible oil industry byproduct (pumpkin oil cake) coated with a thin layer of paraffin wax was obtained. Compared to the film without wax coating, the new material showed reduced water sensitivity and significantly reduced water vapor transmission rate (56.98 ± 7.42 g/m² 24 h). The new material was tested for packing dry apricot slices under a modified atmosphere (100% N₂). Gas composition in PuOC/wax pouches’ headspace was minimally changed during 105 days of storage. The low moisture content (6.76–10.60%) of dried apricot slices was preserved throughout the storage period (p > 0.05), as well as high rehydration power (65–75%). Changes in sensorial properties during storage were minimal. Total phenol content was minimally reduced during storage, followed by antioxidant activity (FRAP and ABTS trial). The microbial profile of dried apricot slices showed that a safe product was obtained throughout the storage. Considering the results, the functionality of new material for packing dry apricots under a modified atmosphere was proven. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)

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21 pages, 7677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermo-Responsive and Electroconductive Nano Au-PNiPAAm Hydrogel Nanocomposites: Influence of Synthesis Method and Nanoparticle Shape on Physicochemical Properties

by Nikolina Radojković, Jelena Spasojević, Zorica Kačarević-Popović, Una Stamenović, Vesna Vodnik, Goran Roglić and Aleksandra Radosavljević

Polymers 2024, 16(23), 3416; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16233416 - 5 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1155

Abstract

Hydrogel nanocomposites that respond to external stimuli and possess switchable electrical properties are considered as emerging materials with potential uses in electrical, electrochemical, and biological devices. This work reports the synthesis and characterization of thermo-responsive and electroconductive hydrogel nanocomposites based on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNiPAAm) and gold nanoparticles (nanospheres—AuNPs and nanorods—AuNRs) using two different synthetic techniques. Method I involved γ-irradiation-induced crosslinking of a polymer matrix (hydrogel), followed by radiolytic in situ formation of gold nanoparticles, while Method II included the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles, followed by radiolytic formation of a polymer matrix around the gold nanoparticles. UV–Vis spectral studies revealed the presence of local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) bands characteristic of nanoparticles of different shapes, confirming their formation and stability inside the polymer matrix. Morphological, structural, and physicochemical analyses indicated the existence of a stable porous polymer matrix, the formation of nanoparticles with a face-centered cubic structure, increased swelling capacity, and a slightly higher volume phase transition temperature (VPTT) for the hydrogel nanocomposites. Comparative electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) showed an increase in conductivity for the nano Au-PNiPAAm hydrogel nanocomposites compared to the PNiPAAm hydrogel, with a considerable rise detected above the VPTT. By reverting to room temperature, the conductivity decreased, indicating that the investigated hydrogel nanocomposites exhibited a remarkable reversible “on–off” thermo-switchable mechanism. The highest conductivity was observed for the sample with rod-shaped gold nanoparticles. The research findings, which include optical, structural, morphological, and physicochemical characterization, evaluation of the efficiency of the chosen synthesis methods, and conductivity testing, provide a starting point for future research on the given nanocomposite materials with integrated multifunctionality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)

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31 pages, 8437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multifunctional Ag-Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide/itaconic Acid) Hydrogel Nanocomposites Prepared by Gamma Irradiation for Potential Application as Topical Treatment Dressings

by Jelena Spasojević, Milica Milošević, Sašenka Vidičević-Novaković, Jelena Tasić, Petar Milovanović, Marija Djurić, Dragan Ranković, Zorica Kačarević-Popović and Aleksandra Radosavljević

Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3211; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223211 - 19 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1189

Abstract

Today, hydrogel dressings that can protect injury sites and effectively promote healing have become highly desirable in wound management. Therefore, multifunctional silver-poli(N-isopropylacrylamide/itaconic acid) (Ag-P(NiPAAm/IA)) hydrogel nanocomposites were developed for potential application as topical treatment dressings. The radiolytic method, used for the crosslinking of the polymer matrix as well as for the in situ incorporation of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) into the polymer matrix, enables the preparation of hydrogel nanocomposites without introducing harmful and toxic agents. Moreover, materials produced using γ-irradiation are simultaneously sterilized, thus fulfilling one of the basic requirements regarding their potential biomedical applications. The NiPAAm/IA ratio and the presence of AgNPs influenced the microstructural parameters of the investigated systems. Increasing the IA content leads to the formation of a more porous polymer matrix with larger pores, while the incorporated AgNPs act as additional junction points, decreasing the porosity and pore size of the resulting nanocomposite hydrogels. Swelling studies showed that most investigated systems uptake the fluids from their surroundings by non-Fick diffusion. Further, the Ag⁺ ion release, antibacterial activity, and cytotoxicity of Ag-P(NiPAAm/IA) hydrogel nanocomposites were examined to evaluate their biomedical potential. All hydrogel nanocomposites showed an initial burst release of Ag⁺ ions (useful in preventing bacteria adherence and biofilm formation), followed by a slower release of the same (ensuring sterility for longer use). An antibacterial activity test against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus showed that Ag-P(NiPAAm/IA) hydrogel nanocomposites, with silver concentrations around 10 ± 1 ppm, successfully prevent bacterial growth. Finally, it was shown that the investigated hydrogel nanocomposites do not exhibit a cytotoxic effect on human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. Therefore, these multifunctional hydrogel nanocomposites may promote wound repair and show promising potential for application as functional wound dressing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)

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