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Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2025) | Viewed by 9701

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Viktor Oláh

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Department of Botany, Institute of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
Interests: duckweed research; plant ecophysiology; aquatic ecotoxicology
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Dr. Klaus-Jürgen Appenroth

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Matthias Schleiden Institute–Plant Physiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany
Interests: duckweed research and applications
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Dr. Sowjanya Sree Kandregula

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Department of Environmental Science, Central University of Kerala, Periye 671320, India
Interests: duckweed research and applications
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Duckweeds or water lentils are the smallest angiosperms belonging to the family Lemnaceae. Besides their basic role in aquatic ecosystems, they offer a suitable model for ecologists, physiologists, geneticists, molecular biologists, and researchers of many other fields. Moreover, from a practical point of view, they can help in coping with various aspects of the current humanitarian and environmental crisis, serve as indicators for environmental monitoring (biomonitoring), help in removing water pollutants (phytoremediation), and provide valuable biomass for easing worldwide protein shortages or the hunger for renewable energy.

The recent bloom of duckweed-related research reflects this versatility and conveys an ever-deepening knowledge on these tiny creatures, sometimes making it difficult, even for experts in the field, to keep up with the pace. We edited a Special Issue “Duckweed: Research Meets Applications” with the aim of providing a comprehensive update of the current progress in duckweed research and applications. This Special Issue has been very well received by the duckweed community and, in total, 39 papers were published in MDPI’s Plants journal and comprehensively published in an e-book (ISBN978-3-0365-9068-4). We hope that this overview is of interest to all those involved in basic research or potential applications of duckweeds, and will also attract researchers from various other fields.

https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants/special_issues/duckweed

We now seek to launch a second volume of the Special Issue “Duckweed: Research meets Applications II”, especially (but not exclusively) for participants of the 7^th International Conference on Duckweed Research and Applications, in Bangkok, Thailand, from 12 to 15 November 2024 (https://www.7icdra2024.com/). Contributions in the form of both original research papers and reviews from a broad scope of disciplines related to duckweed research and applications (e.g., morphology, taxonomy, and ecology), including ecological interactions, ecotoxicology, environmental monitoring and remediation, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, omics, biotechnology, as well as biomass production and its uses, are welcome. We also encourage reports on large-scale cultivation and applications.

Dr. Viktor Oláh
Dr. Klaus-Jürgen Appenroth
Dr. Sowjanya Sree Kandregula
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Plants is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

duckweed Lemnaceae
physiology genetics
omics phylogenetics ecology
ecotoxicology
remediation biomass

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic and Morphological Variation Among Populations of Duckweed Species in Thailand

by Athita Senayai, Yosapol Harnvanichvech, Srunya Vajrodaya, Tokitaka Oyama and Ekaphan Kraichak

Plants 2025, 14(13), 2030; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14132030 - 2 Jul 2025

Viewed by 891

Abstract

Duckweeds have emerged as frontier plants in research, food, and bioenergy applications. Consistency in genetic and morphological traits within species is therefore crucial for their effective use. Thailand hosts diverse duckweed populations with representatives from four of the five genera and at least four species recorded. However, the extent of genetic and morphological variation within these species in Thailand remains unclear. Here, we investigated the genetic and morphological variation in four duckweed species—Landoltia punctata, Lemna aequinoctialis, Spirodela polyrhiza, and Wolffia globosa—collected from 26 sites across Thailand. Using the multilocus sequence typing approach based on three chloroplast genes (rbcL, atpF–atpH, and psbK–psbI), we show that genetic variation in duckweed is distinct at both inter-species and intra-species levels. Among these four species, Lemna aequinoctialis exhibits the highest genetic variation, forming four distinct phylogenetic clusters. This is followed by Spirodela polyrhiza, Wolffia globosa, and Landoltia punctata. In addition, we observe that morphological variation, particularly frond aspect ratio, varies significantly among clusters but remains consistent within each cluster of each species. These findings suggest that duckweed populations in Thailand exhibit substantial genetic variation at the intraspecific level, which is closely associated with frond morphological variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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37 pages, 4654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Age-Specific Physiological Adjustments of Spirodela polyrhiza to Sulfur Deficiency

by Vesna Peršić, Anja Melnjak, Lucija Domjan, Günther Zellnig and Jasenka Antunović Dunić

Plants 2025, 14(13), 1907; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14131907 - 20 Jun 2025

Viewed by 419

Abstract

Spirodela polyrhiza is a suitable model organism for investigating plant developmental influences due to its intracolonial variations in response to various environmental fluctuations, like nutrient deficiency. In this study, transmission electron microscopy was used to examine age-dependent variation in chloroplast ultrastructure, while pigment levels (chlorophyll and anthocyanins), starch accumulation, and metabolic activity (photosynthetic and respiratory rates) were measured to determine metabolic responses to sulfur deficiency. For a comprehensive insight into electron transport efficiency and the redox states of the photosynthetic apparatus, rapid light curves, chlorophyll fluorescence (JIP test parameters), and modulated reflection at 820 nm were analyzed. Under S deficit, mother fronds relied on stored reserves to maintain functional PSII but accumulated reduced PQ pools, slowing electron flow beyond PSII. The first-generation daughter fronds, despite having higher baseline photosynthetic capacity, exhibited the largest decline in photosynthetic indicators (e.g., rETR fell about 50%), limitations in the water-splitting complex, and reduced PSI end-acceptor capacity that resulted in donor- and acceptor-side bottlenecks of electron transport. The youngest granddaughter fronds avoided these bottlenecks by absorbing less light per PSII, channeling electrons through the alternative pathway to balance PQ pools and redox-stable PSI while diverting more carbon into starch and anthocyanin production up to 5-fold for both. These coordinated and age-specific adjustments that provide response flexibility may help maintain photosynthetic function of the colony and facilitate rapid recovery when sulfur becomes available again. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Toxicity Effects of Metformin and the Bioremediation of Metformin in Aquatic Plant Duckweed

by Bing Han, Yumeng Jiang, Wenqiao Wang, Yuhan Guo, Yunwen Yang, Yuman He, Qiqi Di, Ziyang Qu, Yun Xing and Lin Yang

Plants 2025, 14(12), 1761; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14121761 - 9 Jun 2025

Viewed by 408

Abstract

The release of metformin into the environment poses significant challenges, yet its effects on higher plants remain largely unexplored. In this study, we investigated the impact of metformin exposure on duckweed (Lemna turionifera 5511) across varying concentrations ranging from 0 to 0.16 mg/mL. Our findings revealed that leaves exhibited chlorosis, accompanied by a reduction in biomass, particularly evident at concentrations of 0.1, 0.13, and 0.16 mg/mL of metformin. Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis showed that MF exposure reduced photosynthetic performance, indicated by decreased Fv/Fm and Y (II), and increased Y (ND) and NPQ, suggesting impaired photosystem efficiency and altered energy dissipation. Additionally, genes involved in photosynthesis exhibited significantly reduced transcript abundance. Moreover, metformin was found to alter the transcript levels of GH3 and SAUR genes, which are associated with auxin signaling, and increase the expression of SnRK2, a key component of the abscisic acid signaling pathway. These findings shed light on the toxicological effects of metformin on higher plants, providing valuable evidence regarding the toxicity of this pharmaceutical contaminant. Subsequently, we investigated the absorption of metformin by duckweed (0.128 mg/g FW in 7 days) at a concentration of 0.13 mg/mL, observing a gradual decrease in metformin concentration to zero over a period of 10 days. Notably, the optimal adsorption time was determined to be ten days. Hence, duckweed emerges as a promising candidate for the concurrent bioremediation of metformin-contaminated water and the production of high-quality biomass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 12268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Growth Dynamics of Lemna minor: Process Optimization Considering the Influence of Plant Density and Light Intensity

by Jannis von Salzen, Finn Petersen, Andreas Ulbrich and Stefan Streif

Plants 2025, 14(11), 1722; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14111722 - 5 Jun 2025

Viewed by 553

Abstract

The production of duckweed (Lemnaceae) as a novel protein source could make a valuable contribution to human nutrition. The greatly reduced habitus of duckweed enables simple cultivation with extremely low space requirements, making this free-floating freshwater plant ideal for substrate-free and vertical cultivation in controlled environment agriculture. Of particular importance in the design of a plant-producing Indoor Vertical Farming process is the determination of light intensity, as artificial lighting is generally the most energy-intensive feature of daylight-independent cultivation systems. In order to make the production process both cost-effective and low emission in the future, it is, therefore, crucial to understand and mathematically describe the primary metabolism, in particular the light utilization efficiency. To achieve this, a growth model was developed that mathematically describes the combined effects of plant density and light intensity on the growth rate of Lemna minor L. and physiologically explains the intraspecific competition of plants for light through mutual shading. Furthermore, the growth model can be utilized to derive environmental and process parameters, including optimum harvest quantities and efficiency-optimized light intensities to improve the production process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 13387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic and Metabolic Analysis Reveal Potential Mechanism of Starch Accumulation in Spirodela polyrhiza Under Nutrient Stress

by Xin Fang, Yan Hong, Yang Fang, Li Cheng, Zhaofeng Li, Caiming Li and Xiaofeng Ban

Plants 2025, 14(11), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14111617 - 26 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 458

Abstract

Compared with traditional grain starch sources, duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza, S. polyrhiza for simple) does not require soil to produce starch, and the process is less affected by the external environment. Moreover, it produces high levels of starch under certain conditions. This study investigated the patterns and mechanisms of starch accumulation in S. polyrhiza ZH0196 under nutrient stress by determining the changes in starch content, photosynthesis, and amylase activity at different stress induction times. Under nutrient stress, the culture solution was replaced with deionized water. The starch content increased from 1.95% to 41.71% (dry weight) after 2 days of nutrient stress induction. Short-term nutrient-stress treatment had little effect on frond photosynthesis, enhanced the activity of starch synthesis-related enzyme, and weakened the activity of degradation-related enzymes. The transcriptome results further indicated that the key genes and metabolic patterns of starch synthesis promoted starch accumulation in S. polyrhiza ZH0196 fronds by accelerating the response to CO₂ fixation via the Calvin cycle, promoting straight-chain starch synthesis, and decreasing starch degradation after short-term oligotrophic treatment. This study suggests that nutrient stress is a green and efficient method of increasing the starch yield of duckweed, which represents an important insight for developing duckweed starch resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 2024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Varied Growth Media Necessitate Different Light Regimes for Indoor Duckweed Cultivation

by Cian Redmond, Rachel O’Mahoney, Marion Blanchard and Neil E. Coughlan

Plants 2025, 14(3), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14030397 - 28 Jan 2025

Viewed by 2070

Abstract

Controlled indoor cultivation of duckweed plants can support remediation of wastewaters through generation of plant biomass. Despite numerous advantages, indoor cultivation of duckweeds on agri-food wastewaters remains underexplored. Lighting regimes need to be optimised for duckweed growth and affordability of energy consumption, as it has been shown that the composition of wastewater growth medium can alter light utilisation. In the present study, four duckweed (Lemna minor) clones were grown under four different light regimes on either optimised half-strength Hutner’s medium or wastewater derived from the liquid fractions of anaerobically digested pig slurry. Cultivation of L. minor was assessed for the four light regimes using a commercial hydroponics plant growth medium in a 3.96 m² multitiered cultivation system. When cultivated on optimised half-strength Hutner’s medium or diluted pig slurry under laboratory conditions, it appeared that photoperiod rather than light intensity was more important for duckweed growth. Yet, under moderate flow conditions within a larger scale multitiered cultivation system, greater light intensity appeared to support duckweed cultivation irrespective of photoperiod. These findings emphasise the need to move beyond small-scale and static assessments of duckweed before embarking on larger, industry-relevant scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1665 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimisation of Dairy Soiled Water as a Novel Duckweed Growth Medium

by Cian Redmond, Neil E. Coughlan, Aine Purcell and Marcel A. K. Jansen

Plants 2025, 14(1), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14010110 - 2 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1320

Abstract

As a result of intensive agriculture, large quantities of liquid wastewaters are produced. Dairy soiled water (DSW) is produced in large volumes during the milking process of cattle. It comprises essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The physicochemical properties of DSWs are highly variable as per individual farmer practices and seasonality. Currently, DSWs are disposed of primarily through land spreading, which frequently results in environmental pollution through land run-off. As a result of the large volumes produced coupled with the high variability, there are few alternative uses for DSWs, with presently little consideration of possible on-farm valorisation. Through a series of factorial experiments, the suitability of DSW as a novel duckweed (Lemna minor L.) cultivation medium is assessed. Different concentrations and pH values are assessed to determine the optimal conditions to support duckweed cultivation. Under the principles of circular economy, duckweed-based valorisation of DSWs can lead to the production of valuable, high-protein plant biomass that could be incorporated into animal feed to support livestock nutritional requirements. This study identifies the management of DSW’s pH as a key growth parameter in the successful cultivation of duckweed to underpin a circular economy approach for valorisation and improved environmental outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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Review

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26 pages, 1912 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Developmental Cycle of Spirodela polyrhiza Turions: A Model for Turion-Based Duckweed Overwintering?

by Paul Ziegler

Plants 2024, 13(21), 2993; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13212993 - 26 Oct 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2199

Abstract

Duckweeds are widely distributed small, simply constructed aquatic higher plants (the Lemnaceae) found on quiet freshwater surfaces. Species inhabiting temperate climates may have to cope with long periods of severe cold during the winter season. Several duckweeds form compact resting structures from the assimilatory fronds of the growing season that can bridge inhospitable conditions in a quiescent state. Of these, turions separate from the mother fronds and overwinter on the water body bottom in a dormant state. They can surface, germinate, and sprout to resume active growth upon warming in the spring. The turions of the largest duckweed, Spirodela polyrhiza, have been intensively examined as to ultrastructure, the factors governing their formation and release from dormancy, and the signals driving their germination and sprouting and the accompanying starch degradation. Comparative transcriptomics of assimilatory fronds and dormant turions are revealing the molecular features of this developmental cycle. The results illustrate an elegant sequence of reactions that ensures aquatic survival of even severe winters by frost avoidance in a vegetative mode. Since little is known about other duckweed resting fronds, the S. polyrhiza turion developmental cycle cannot be considered to be representative of duckweed resting fronds in general but can serve as a reference for corresponding investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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Other

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13 pages, 1429 KiB

Open AccessConference Report

7th International Conference on Duckweed Research and Applications: Depicting an Era of Advancing Research Translation Toward Practical Applications

by Klaus J. Appenroth, Viktor Oláh, Hidehiro Ishizawa and K. Sowjanya Sree

Plants 2025, 14(14), 2143; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14142143 - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

Duckweeds are aquatic monocotyledonous plants known to be the smallest and the fastest growing angiosperms. The 7th International Conference on Duckweed Research and Applications (7th ICDRA) was held in Bangkok, Thailand, from 12th to 16th November 2024. The conference drew young and experienced scientists from across the world who presented their research in varied fields. This conference report presents the highlights of the advancements in the field of duckweed research and application in the sections: Genomics and Cell Biology; Diversity, Ecology, Evolution; Physiology, Reproduction, Metabolomics; Microbiome and Interactions; Applications; and Future Outlook. The next conference, 8th ICDRA, will be held in Naples, Italy, in 2026. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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