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Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 65530

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Sabine Demotes-Mainard

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Guest Editor

INRAE (French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment)
Interests: branching; light quantity; light quality; environmental regulations; plant architecture and visual quality

Dr. Didier Combes

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor

INRAE (French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment)
Interests: bioclimatology; light; modelling; measurement; plant architecture; shade; photomorphogenesis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Changes in light quantity and quality induce regulations of a number of processes that contribute to the acclimatization of crops to their environment. Historically, fluctuation in light quantity has been shown to regulate photosynthesis, and changes in light quality to play an essential role in regulating morphogenesis. We now know that both light components regulate photosynthesis and morphogenesis, as well as many other processes crucial for crop yield and quality, such as dry matter partitioning, secondary metabolite production and regulation of plant defense.

However, many questions still deserve to be addressed. For instance, how does the duration of exposure and the time step of light fluctuations affect regulations? What are the sites of light perception involved in specific regulations and how are the signals integrated over a plant? How is light quality distributed inside canopies? What are the physiological processes underlying the phenotypic responses? What are the interactions between light quantity, light quality, and genotype? Progress in knowledge will help to include the regulations exerted by light quantity and quality in models, especially on plant morphogenesis, so as to better account for feedback effects. It will also give keys to optimize light use in emerging production systems as mixed crops associating different species or cultivars or to make best use of LEDs technologies for crops grown in greenhouse or closed environment modules.

This Special Issue will highlight original research papers and reviews on recent advances on the regulations by light quantity and quality on a range of traits of importance for crops and on the underlying processes. The development of experimental and modelling approaches to facilitate the exploration of light regulations and their effects is also welcome.

Dr. Sabine Demotes-Mainard
Dr. Didier Combes
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Light quantity
Light quality
Light distribution
Photomorphogenesis
Photosynthesis
Light sensing
Growth and development
Crop quality
Light × genotype interaction
Modeling

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 8068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Periodicity and Spectral Composition of Light in the Regulation of Hypocotyl Elongation of Sunflower Seedlings

by Dragan Vinterhalter, Branka Vinterhalter and Vaclav Motyka

Plants 2022, 11(15), 1982; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11151982 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2323

Abstract

This study presents the hypocotyl elongation of sunflower seedlings germinated under different light conditions. Elongation was rhythmic under diurnal (LD) photoperiods but uniform (arrhythmic) under free-running conditions of white light (LL) or darkness (DD). On the sixth day after the onset of germination, seedlings were entrained in all diurnal photoperiods. Their hypocotyl elongation was dual, showing different kinetics in daytime and nighttime periods. The daytime elongation peak was around midday and 1–2 h after dusk in the nighttime. Plantlets compensated for the differences in the daytime and nighttime durations and exhibited similar overall elongation rates, centered around the uniform elongation in LL conditions. Thus, plants from diurnal photoperiods and LL could be grouped together as white-light treatments that suppressed hypocotyl elongation. Hypocotyl elongation was significantly higher under DD than under white-light photoperiods. In continuous monochromatic blue, yellow, green, or red light, hypocotyl elongation was also uniform and very high. The treatments with monochromatic light and DD had similar overall elongation rates; thus, they could be grouped together. Compared with white light, monochromatic light promoted hypocotyl elongation. Suppression of hypocotyl elongation and rhythmicity reappeared in some combination with two or more monochromatic light colors. The presence of red light was obligatory for this suppression. Plantlets entrained in diurnal photoperiods readily slipped from rhythmic into uniform elongation if they encountered any kind of free-running conditions. These transitions occurred whenever the anticipated duration of daytime or nighttime was extended more than expected, or when plantlets were exposed to constant monochromatic light. This study revealed significant differences in the development of sunflower plantlets illuminated with monochromatic or white light. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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14 pages, 2557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Photoconversion Coatings for Greenhouses on Electrical Signal-Induced Resistance to Heat Stress of Tomato Plants

by Marina Grinberg, Ekaterina Gromova, Alyona Grishina, Ekaterina Berezina, Maria Ladeynova, Alexander V. Simakin, Vladimir Sukhov, Sergey V. Gudkov and Vladimir Vodeneev

Plants 2022, 11(2), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11020229 - 17 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2444

Abstract

The use of photoconversion coatings is a promising approach to improving the quality of light when growing plants in greenhouses in low light conditions. In this work, we studied the effect of fluoropolymer coatings, which produce photoconversion of UV-A radiation and violet light into blue and red light, on the growth and resistance to heat stress of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.). The stimulating effect of the spectrum obtained as a result of photoconversion on plant growth and the activity of the photosynthesis process are shown. At the same time, the ability to withstand heat stress is reduced in plants grown under a photoconversion coating. Stress electrical signals, which normally increase resistance, in such plants have a much weaker protective effect on the photosynthetic apparatus. The observed effects are apparently explained by a decrease in the concentration of H₂O₂ in plants grown using photoconversion technologies, which leads to a shift in the development program towards increased productivity to the detriment of the protective function. Thus, when using photoconversion technologies in agricultural practice, it is necessary to pay increased attention to maintaining stable conditions during plant cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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18 pages, 1180 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density and Light Quality for Increasing Radiation-Use Efficiency in Dwarf Tomato under LED Light at the Vegetative Growth Stage

by Xinglin Ke, Hideo Yoshida, Shoko Hikosaka and Eiji Goto

Plants 2022, 11(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11010121 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7006

Abstract

Dwarf tomatoes are advantageous when cultivated in a plant factory with artificial light because they can grow well in a small volume. However, few studies have been reported on cultivation in a controlled environment for improving productivity. We performed two experiments to investigate the effects of photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD; 300, 500, and 700 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) with white light and light quality (white, R3B1 (red:blue = 3:1), and R9B1) with a PPFD of 300 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ on plant growth and radiation-use efficiency (RUE) of a dwarf tomato cultivar (‘Micro-Tom’) at the vegetative growth stage. The results clearly demonstrated that higher PPFD leads to higher dry mass and lower specific leaf area, but it does not affect the stem length. Furthermore, high PPFD increased the photosynthetic rate (Pn) of individual leaves but decreased RUE. A higher blue light proportion inhibited dry mass production with the same intercepted light because the leaves under high blue light proportion had low Pn and photosynthetic light-use efficiency. In conclusion, 300 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD and R9B1 are the recommended proper PPFD and light quality, respectively, for ‘Micro-Tom’ cultivation at the vegetative growth stage to increase the RUE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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16 pages, 3116 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LightCue: An Innovative Far-Red Light Emitter for Locally Modifying the Spectral Cue in Outdoor Conditions with Global Consequences on Plant Architecture

by Alain Fortineau, Didier Combes, Céline Richard-Molard, Ela Frak and Alexandra Jullien

Plants 2021, 10(11), 2483; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112483 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2206

Abstract

Plasticity of plant architecture is a promising lever to increase crop resilience to biotic and abiotic damage. Among the main drivers of its regulation are the spectral signals which occur via photomorphogenesis processes. In particular, branching, one of the yield components, is responsive to photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and to red to far-red ratio (R:FR), both signals whose effects are tricky to decorrelate in the field. Here, we developed a device consisting of far-red light emitting diode (LED) rings. It can reduce the R:FR ratio to 0.14 in the vicinity of an organ without changing the PPFD in outdoor high irradiance fluctuating conditions, which is a breakthrough as LEDs have been mostly used in non-fluctuant controlled conditions at low irradiance over short periods of time. Applied at the base of rapeseed stems during the whole bolting-reproductive phase, LightCue induced an expected significant inhibitory effect on two basal targeted axillary buds and a strong unexpected stimulatory effect on the overall plant aerial architecture. It increased shoot/root ratio while not modifying the carbon balance. LightCue therefore represents a promising device for progress in the understanding of light signal regulation in the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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16 pages, 12083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Light Spectrum Differentially Affects the Yield and Phytochemical Content of Microgreen Vegetables in a Plant Factory

by Filippos Bantis

Plants 2021, 10(10), 2182; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102182 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4762

Abstract

Light quality exerts considerable effects on crop development and phytochemical content. Moreover, crops grown as microgreens are ideal for plant factories with artificial lighting, since they contain greater amounts of bioactive compounds compared to fully-grown plants. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of broad-spectra light with different red/blue ratios on the yield, morphology, and phytochemical content of seven microgreens. Mustard, radish, green basil, red amaranth, garlic chives, borage, and pea shoots were grown in a vertical farming system under three light sources emitting red/blue ratios of about 2, 5, and 9 units (RB2, RB5, and RB9, respectively). Mustard exhibited the most profound color responses. The yield was enhanced in three microgreens under RB9 and in garlic under RB2. Both the hypocotyl length and the leaf and cotyledon area were significantly enhanced by increasing the red light in three microgreens each. Total soluble solids (Brix) were reduced in 4 microgreens under RB2. The total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were reduced under RB2 in 6 and 5 microgreens, respectively. The chlorophylls were variably affected but total the carotenoid content was reduced in RB9 in three microgreens. Overall, light wavelength differentially affected the microgreens’ quality, while small interplays in spectral bands enhanced their phytochemical content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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24 pages, 53452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Light Spectral Quality on the Micropropagated Raspberry Plants during Ex Vitro Adaptation

by Ivan G. Tarakanov, Anatoly A. Kosobryukhov, Daria A. Tovstyko, Alexander A. Anisimov, Alla A. Shulgina, Nikolay N. Sleptsov, Elena A. Kalashnikova, Andon V. Vassilev and Rima N. Kirakosyan

Plants 2021, 10(10), 2071; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10102071 - 30 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2876

Abstract

This work focuses on developing light environments for the effective regulation of morphogenesis and ex vitro conditions adaptation in micropropagated raspberry plants on the basis of photomorphogenetic control of physiological processes using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). In experiments with cloned plants growing ex vitro in stressful conditions during acclimation, the effects of optical radiation of various spectral combinations from different photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) spectral regions were studied. The data on the plant development and state of the photosynthetic apparatus, features of photosynthetic gas exchange and transpiration, accumulation of photosynthetic pigments, light curves of photosynthesis, and data on growth processes in light modes using combined quasimonochromatic radiation (either mixture of red, green, and blue light or red, far-red, and blue light) with various ratio of the distinct spectral regions were obtained. Photosynthetic apparatus functional activity under different light conditions was studied with chlorophyll fluorescence determination, and plant stress responses to growing under artificial spectral light conditions were characterized. The experiments were accompanied by detailed plant phenotyping at the structural and functional levels. Plant acclimation and photosynthetic improvements in response to added far-red and green light wavelengths to the main red-blue spectrum have been elucidated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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16 pages, 4149 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Continuous Lighting and High Daily Light Integral Enhance Yield and Quality of Mass-Produced Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.) in Plant Factories

by Wenshuo Xu, Na Lu, Masao Kikuchi and Michiko Takagaki

Plants 2021, 10(6), 1203; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061203 - 12 Jun 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4319

Abstract

Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.), as a medicinal plant, has a high phenolic content in its leaves and flowers. It is often used in salads as a dietary vegetable. Attracting strong demand, it could be a good candidate crop for a plant factory with artificial lighting (PFAL) that can achieve the mass production of high-quality crops with high productivity by regulating environmental conditions such as light. In this study, two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of continuous lighting (CL) and different daily light integrals (DLIs) under CL on the growth, secondary metabolites, and light use efficiency (LUE) of nasturtium, all of which are essential in the successful cultivation in PFALs. In Experiment 1, two lighting models, the same DLI of 17.3 mol m⁻² d⁻¹ but different light periods (24 and 16 h) with different light intensities (200 and 300 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively), were applied to nasturtium. The results showed that leaf production, secondary metabolites, and LUE were higher under the 24-h CL treatment than under the 16-h non-CL treatment. In Experiment 2, three DLI levels (17.3, 25.9, and 34.6 mol m⁻² d⁻¹) under the CL condition were applied. The results showed that the growth parameters were positively correlated with the DLI levels under CL. The lowest DLI had the highest LUE. We conclude that the mass production of nasturtium under CL in PFALs is feasible, and the yield increases as DLI increases from 17.3 to 34.6 mol m⁻² d⁻¹ under CL without causing physiological stress on plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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11 pages, 18146 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Filtering Light-Emitting Diodes to Investigate Amber and Red Spectral Effects on Lettuce Growth

by Bo-Sen Wu, Sarah MacPherson and Mark Lefsrud

Plants 2021, 10(6), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10061075 - 27 May 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3770

Abstract

Red and blue light are the principal wavelengths responsible for driving photosynthetic activity, yet amber light (595 nm) has the highest quantum efficiency and amber-rich high pressure sodium lamps result in superior or comparable plant performance. On this basis, we investigated how lettuce plant growth and photosynthetic activity were influenced by broad and narrow light spectra in the 590–630 nm range, by creating amber and red light-emitting diode (LED) spectra that are not commercially available. Four different light spectra were outfitted from existing LEDs using shortpass and notch filters: a double peak spectrum (595 and 655 nm; referred to as 595 + 655-nm light) that excluded 630-nm light, 595-nm, 613-nm, and 633-nm light emitting at an irradiance level of 50 W·m⁻² (243–267 µmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹). Shifting LED wavelengths from 595 nm to 633 nm and from 595 nm to 613 nm resulted in a biomass yield decrease of ~50% and ~80%, respectively. When 630-nm light is blocked, lettuce displayed expanded plant structures and the absence of purple pigmentation. This report presents a new and feasible approach to plant photobiology studies, by removing certain wavelengths to assess and investigate wavelength effect on plant growth and photosynthesis. Findings indicate that amber light is superior to red light for promoting photosynthetic activity and plant productivity, and this could set precedence for future work aimed at maximizing plant productivity in controlled environment agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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18 pages, 4050 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Does Green Really Mean Go? Increasing the Fraction of Green Photons Promotes Growth of Tomato but Not Lettuce or Cucumber

by Paul Kusuma, Boston Swan and Bruce Bugbee

Plants 2021, 10(4), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040637 - 27 Mar 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5456

Abstract

The photon flux in the green wavelength region is relatively enriched in shade and the photon flux in the blue region is selectively filtered. In sole source lighting environments, increasing the fraction of blue typically decreases stem elongation and leaf expansion, and smaller leaves reduce photon capture and yield. Photons in the green region reverse these blue reductions through the photoreceptor cryptochrome in Arabidopsis thaliana, but studies in other species have not consistently shown the benefits of photons in the green region on leaf expansion and growth. Spectral effects can interact with total photon flux. Here, we report the effect of the fraction of photons in the blue (10 to 30%) and green (0 to 50%) regions at photosynthetic photon flux densities of 200 and 500 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹ in lettuce, cucumber and tomato. As expected, increasing the fraction of photons in the blue region consistently decreased leaf area and dry mass. By contrast, large changes in the fraction of photons in the green region had minimal effects on leaf area and dry mass in lettuce and cucumber. Photons in the green region were more potent at a lower fraction of photons in the blue region. Photons in the green region increased stem and petiole length in cucumber and tomato, which is a classic shade avoidance response. These results suggest that high-light crop species might respond to the fraction of photons in the green region with either shade tolerance (leaf expansion) or shade avoidance (stem elongation). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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12 pages, 1639 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Influence of Light Spectra from LEDs and Scion × Rootstock Genotype Combinations on the Quality of Grafted Watermelon Seedlings

by Filippos Bantis, Christodoulos Dangitsis and Athanasios Koukounaras

Plants 2021, 10(2), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020353 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3141

Abstract

Grafting is the main means of propagation for watermelon crops. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether light quality during graft healing variably affects different scion × rootstock genotype combinations. Two watermelon hybrid scions (Sunny Florida F1 and Celine F1) and two interspecific squash rootstocks (Radik and TZ-148) were used, and four scion × rootstock genotype combinations derived. After grafting, we tested seven light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which provided narrow-band red (R) and blue (B); R-B with 36% (36B), 24% (24B), and 12% (12B) blue; 12B with additional far-red (12B+FR); and white (W), in a healing chamber. In three genotype combinations, shoot length, leaf area, and shoot biomass were mainly enhanced under red-blue LEDs, while stem diameter was greater under R. In contrast, dry weight of roots, Dickson’s quality index, and ratio of shoot dry weight/length were variably affected in each genotype combination. From the results, it is concluded that light treatments differentially affected each genotype combination, but some parameters involving biomass production show genotypic dependency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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19 pages, 1356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reaching Natural Growth: Light Quality Effects on Plant Performance in Indoor Growth Facilities

by Camilo Chiang, Daniel Bånkestad and Günter Hoch

Plants 2020, 9(10), 1273; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9101273 - 27 Sep 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 9957

Abstract

To transfer experimental findings in plant research to natural ecosystems it is imperative to reach near to natural-like plant performance. Previous studies propose differences in temperature and light quantity as main sources of deviations between indoor and outdoor plant growth. With increasing implementation of light emitting diodes (LED) in plant growth facilities, light quality is yet another factor that can be optimised to prevent unnatural plant performance. We investigated the effects of different wavelength combinations in phytotrons (i.e., indoor growth chambers) on plant growth and physiology in seven different plant species from different plant functional types (herbs, grasses and trees). The results from these experiments were compared against a previous field trial with the same set of species. While different proportions of blue (B) and red (R) light were applied in the phytotrons, the mean environmental conditions (photoperiod, total radiation, red to far red ratio and day/night temperature and air humidity) from the field trial were used in the phytotrons in order to assess which wavelength combinations result in the most natural-like plant performance. Different plant traits and physiological parameters, including biomass productivity, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf pigmentation, photosynthesis under a standardised light, and the respective growing light and chlorophyll fluorescence, were measured at the end of each treatment. The exposure to different B percentages induced species-specific dose response reactions for most of the analysed parameters. Compared with intermediate B light treatments (25 and/or 35% B light), extreme R or B light enriched treatments (6% and 62% of B respectively) significantly affected the height, biomass, biomass allocation, chlorophyll content, and photosynthesis parameters, differently among species. Principal component analyses (PCA) confirmed that 6% and 62% B light quality combinations induce more extreme plant performance in most cases, indicating that light quality needs to be adjusted to mitigate unnatural plant responses under indoor conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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Review

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23 pages, 1813 KiB

Open AccessReview

LED Illumination for High-Quality High-Yield Crop Growth in Protected Cropping Environments

by Md Momtazur Rahman, David Luke Field, Soyed Mohiuddin Ahmed, Md Tanvir Hasan, Mohammad Khairul Basher and Kamal Alameh

Plants 2021, 10(11), 2470; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112470 - 16 Nov 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 9134

Abstract

Vegetables and herbs play a central role in the human diet due to their low fat and calory content and essential antioxidant, phytochemicals, and fiber. It is well known that the manipulation of light wavelengths illuminating the crops can enhance their growth rate and nutrient contents. To date, it has not been easy to generalize the effects of LED illumination because of the differences in the plant species investigated, the measured traits, the way wavelengths have been manipulated, and the plants’ growing environments. In order to address this gap, we undertook a quantitative review of LED manipulation in relation to plant traits, focusing on vegetables and herbs. Here, we use standardized measurements of biomass, antioxidant, and other quantitative characteristics together with the whole range of the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). Overall, our review revealed support for the claims that the red and blue LED illumination is more reliable and efficient than full spectrum illumination and increases the plant’s biomass and nutritional value by enhancing the photosynthetic activity, antioxidant properties, phenolic, and flavonoids contents. Although LED illumination provides an efficient way to improve yield and modify plant properties, this study also highlights the broad range of responses among species, varieties traits, and the age of plant material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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18 pages, 1189 KiB

Open AccessReview

Understanding Maize Response to Nitrogen Limitation in Different Light Conditions for the Improvement of Photosynthesis

by Aleksandra Urban, Paweł Rogowski, Wioleta Wasilewska-Dębowska and Elżbieta Romanowska

Plants 2021, 10(9), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10091932 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5615

Abstract

The photosynthetic capacity of leaves is determined by their content of nitrogen (N). Nitrogen involved in photosynthesis is divided between soluble proteins and thylakoid membrane proteins. In C4 plants, the photosynthetic apparatus is partitioned between two cell types: mesophyll cells and bundle sheath. The enzymes involved in the C4 carbon cycle and assimilation of nitrogen are localized in a cell-specific manner. Although intracellular distribution of enzymes of N and carbon assimilation is variable, little is known about the physiological consequences of this distribution caused by light changes. Light intensity and nitrogen concentration influence content of nitrates in leaves and can induce activity of the main enzymes involved in N metabolism, and changes that reduce the photosynthesis rate also reduce photosynthetic N use efficiency. In this review, we wish to highlight and discuss how/whether light intensity can improve photosynthesis in maize during nitrogen limitation. We described the general regulation of changes in the main photosynthetic and nitrogen metabolism enzymes, their quantity and localization, thylakoid protein abundance, intracellular transport of organic acids as well as specific features connected with C4 photosynthesis, and addressed the major open questions related to N metabolism and effects of light on photosynthesis in C4 plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulations by Light Quantity and Quality and Their Effects on Crops)

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