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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Parasitic Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 42418

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Prof. Dr. Maria Grazia Pennisi

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Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Messina, Messina, Italy
Interests: vector-borne diseases; transmissible diseases; zoonosis; epidemiology; companion animal internal medicine; feline medicine

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Animal vector-borne diseases are a multifaceted global threat due to the public health risk in the case of zoonotic pathogens, the economic impact on animal productions, the serious consequences on companion animal health, and the adverse effects for wildlife conservation. Additionally, climatic change, and ecological, demographic, and socioeconomic drivers, including globalization, are causing the emergence and spread of many vector-borne pathogens worldwide.

This explains the great interest in increasing current knowledge about epidemiology; vector and host species; transmission; reservoirs; protective immunity; immunopathogenesis; the risk factors influencing the severity and course of disease, clinical, and clinicopathological findings; and the diagnosis, management, treatment, and prevention of viral, bacterial, protozoal, and helminthic animal vector-borne diseases.

This Special Issue aims to collect studies performed in the Veterinary and One Health field focusing on the above topics and offer a multidisciplinary asset for the scientific community.

I invite you to submit your manuscripts to share and spread your scientific findings and promote the development of future research trends.

I very much look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Maria Grazia Pennisi
Guest Editor

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Keywords

vector-borne disease
vector-borne pathogens
host
dog
cat
horse
cattle
goat
sheep
domestic animal
wildlife
reservoir
vector
tick
flea
mosquito
sand fly
epidemiology
transmission
immunity
immunopathogenesis
clinical signs
clinical pathology
histopathology
diagnosis
therapy
prevention
one health
zoonosis

Published Papers (12 papers)

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14 pages, 2463 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Transfected Babesia bovis Parasite Line Expressing eGFP Is Able to Complete the Full Life Cycle of the Parasite in Mammalian and Tick Hosts

by Wendell C. Johnson, Hala E. Hussein, Janaina Capelli-Peixoto, Jacob M. Laughery, Naomi S. Taus, Carlos E. Suarez and Massaro W. Ueti

Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060623 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1883

Abstract

Bovine babesiosis is caused by apicomplexan pathogens of the genus Babesia, including B. bovis. This protozoan parasite has a complex life cycle involving dynamic changes to its transcriptome during the transition between the invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. Studying the role of genes upregulated by tick stage parasites has been hindered by the lack of appropriate tools to study parasite gene products in the invertebrate host. Herein, we present tfBbo5480, a transfected B. bovis cell line, constitutively expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) created by a whole gene replacement transfection strategy, that was capable of completing the parasite’s entire life cycle in both the vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. tfBbo5480 was demonstrated to respond to in vitro sexual stage induction and upon acquisition by the female tick vector, Rhipicephalus microplus, the tick specific kinete stage of tfBbo5480 was detected in tick hemolymph. Larvae from tfBbo5480 exposed R. microplus female ticks successfully transmitted the transfected parasite to a naïve calf. The development of the whole gene replacement strategy will permit a deeper understanding of the biology of parasite-host-vector triad interactions and facilitate the evaluation of upregulated genes during the parasite’s journey through the tick vector leading to new intervention strategies for the control of bovine babesiosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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13 pages, 3212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protozoan and Rickettsial Pathogens in Ticks Collected from Infested Cattle from Turkey

by Shengwei Ji, Onur Ceylan, Zhuowei Ma, Eloiza May Galon, Iqra Zafar, Hang Li, Yae Hasegawa, Mutlu Sevinc, Tatsunori Masatani, Aiko Iguchi, Osamu Kawase, Rika Umemiya-Shirafuji, Masahito Asada, Ferda Sevinc and Xuenan Xuan

Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11050500 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1984

Abstract

Diseases caused by tick-transmitted pathogens including bacteria, viruses, and protozoa are of veterinary and medical importance, especially in tropical and subtropical regions including Turkey. Hence, molecular surveillance of tick-borne diseases will improve the understanding of their distribution towards effective control. This study aimed to investigate the presence and perform molecular characterization of Babesia sp., Theileria sp., Anaplasma sp., Ehrlichia sp., and Rickettsia sp. in tick species collected from cattle in five provinces of Turkey. A total of 277 adult ticks (males and females) were collected. After microscopic identification, tick pools were generated according to tick species, host animal, and sampling sites prior to DNA extraction. Molecular identification of the tick species was conducted through PCR assays. Out of 90 DNA pools, 57.8% (52/90) were detected to harbor at least 1 pathogen. The most frequently-detected pathogens were Babesia bovis, with a minimum detection rate of 7.9%, followed by Ehrlichia sp. (7.2%), Theileria annulata (5.8%), Coxiella sp. (3.3%), Anaplasma marginale (2.5%), Rickettsia sp. (2.5%), and B. occultans (0.7%). Rickettsia sp. identified in this study include Candidatus Rickettsia barbariae, R. aeschlimannii, and Rickettsia sp. Chad. All sequences obtained from this study showed 99.05–100% nucleotide identity with those deposited in GenBank (query cover range: 89–100%). This is the first molecular detection of Rickettsia sp. Chad, a variant of Astrakhan fever rickettsia, in Turkey. Results from this survey provide a reference for the distribution of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in cattle and expand the knowledge of tick-borne diseases in Turkey. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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10 pages, 2273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tick-Borne Pathogens, Babesia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., in Sled and Companion Dogs from Central and North-Eastern Europe

by Anna Bajer, Maciej Kowalec, Viktoriya A. Levytska, Ewa Julia Mierzejewska, Mustafa Alsarraf, Vasyl Poliukhovych, Anna Rodo, Dagmara Wężyk and Dorota Dwużnik-Szarek

Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11050499 - 21 Apr 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2260

Abstract

Ticks are important vectors of numerous pathogens of medical and veterinary significance. The aim of the current study was to determine the prevalence of Babesia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in sled and pet dogs from Central and North-Eastern Europe. Neither Babesia spp. nor Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. infections were detected in sled dogs from seven countries (Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Russia and Finland). The DNA of Babesia spp. was detected in 100% of symptomatic and 5.4% of asymptomatic pet dogs from Poland. Similarly, the DNA of Babesia spp. was identified in 82% of symptomatic and 3.8% of asymptomatic pet dogs from Ukraine. The DNA of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 4.4% of pet dogs. Molecular typing confirmed the presence of Babesia canis and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) in selected samples. Four dogs were co-infected by B. canis and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne pathogens constitute a serious health threat to pet dogs in Central and South-Eastern Europe, but were not observed among sled dogs from the same region of Europe nor in the Baltic countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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20 pages, 1007 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma ovis–Emerging Pathogens in the German Sheep Population

by Benjamin Ulrich Bauer, Cristian Răileanu, Oliver Tauchmann, Susanne Fischer, Christina Ambros, Cornelia Silaghi and Martin Ganter

Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1298; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101298 - 09 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5242

Abstract

Knowledge on the occurrence of pathogenic tick-borne bacteria Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma ovis is scarce in sheep from Germany. In 2020, owners from five flocks reported ill thrift lambs and ewes with tick infestation. Out of 67 affected sheep, 55 animals were clinically examined and hematological values, blood chemistry and fecal examinations were performed to investigate the underlying disease causes. Serological tests (cELISA, IFAT) and qPCR were applied to all affected sheep to rule out A. phagocytophilum and A. ovis as a differential diagnosis. Ticks were collected from selected pastures and tested by qPCR. Most animals (n = 43) suffered from selenium deficiency and endoparasites were detected in each flock. Anaplasma spp. antibodies were determined in 59% of examined sheep. Seventeen animals tested positive for A. phagocytophilum by qPCR from all flocks and A. phagocytophilum was also detected in eight pools of Ixodes ricinus. Anaplasma phagocytophilum isolates from sheep and ticks were genotyped using three genes (16S rRNA, msp4 and groEL). Anaplasma ovis DNA was identified in six animals from one flock. Clinical, hematological and biochemical changes were not significantly associated with Anaplasma spp. infection. The 16S rRNA analysis revealed known variants of A. phagocytophilum, whereas the msp4 and groEL showed new genotypes. Further investigations are necessary to evaluate the dissemination and health impact of both pathogens in the German sheep population particularly in case of comorbidities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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18 pages, 2184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Validation of Novel PCR Assays for the Diagnosis of Bovine Stephanofilariasis and Detection of Stephanofilaria sp. Nematodes in Vector Flies

by Muhammad Noman Naseem, Ali Raza, Rachel Allavena, Michael McGowan, Jess A. T. Morgan, Constantin Constantinoiu, Ala E. Tabor and Peter James

Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091211 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2992

Abstract

Background: Stephanofilaria spp. nematodes are associated with cutaneous lesions in cattle and other livestock and mammalian wildlife species. In Australia, Haematobia irritans exigua, commonly known as buffalo fly (BF) transmits a well-described but presently unnamed species of Stephanofilaria, which has been speculatively implicated in the aetiology of BF lesions. The sensitivity of current techniques for detecting Stephanofilaria spp. in skin lesions and vector species is low, and there is no genomic sequence for any member of the genus Stephanofilaria currently available in sequence databases. Methods: To develop molecular assays for the detection of the Australian Stephanofilaria sp., skin biopsies were collected from freshly slaughtered cattle with typical lesions near the medial canthus. Adult nematodes and microfilariae were isolated from the biopsies using a saline recovery technique. The nematodes were morphologically identified as Stephanofilaria sp. by scanning electron microscopy. DNA was extracted and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region of rDNA, and the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) region of mtDNA was amplified and sequenced. Stephanofilaria sp. specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and qPCR assays (SYBR Green^® and TaqMan™) were developed and optimised from the novel ITS2 sequence obtained. The specificity of each assay was confirmed by testing against nematode species Onchocerca gibsoni and Dirofilaria immitis, as well as host (bovine) and BF DNA. Results: Scanning electron microscopy of the anterior and posterior ends of isolated nematodes confirmed Stephanofilaria sp. A phylogenetic analysis of the cox1 sequence demonstrated that this species is most closely related to Thelazia callipaeda, a parasitic nematode that is a common cause of thelaziasis (or eyeworm infestation) in humans, dogs, and cats. Both conventional and qPCR assays specifically amplified DNA from Stephanofilaria sp. Conventional PCR, TaqMan™, and SYBR Green^® assays were shown to detect 1 ng, 1 pg, and 100 fg of Stephanofilaria DNA, respectively. Both qPCR assays detected DNA from single Stephanofilaria microfilaria. Conclusion: Molecular diagnostic assays developed in this study showed high specificity and sensitivity for Stephanofilaria sp. DNA. The availability of an accurate and sensitive PCR assay for Stephanofilaria will assist in determining its role in the pathogenesis of cattle skin lesions, as well as in understanding its epidemiological dynamics. This assay may also have application for use in epidemiological studies with other species of Stephanofilaria, most particularly closely related S. stilesi, but this will require confirmation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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14 pages, 582 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Avian Haemosporidian Parasites in Southern Iran

by Vajiheh Ghaemitalab, Omid Mirshamsi, Gediminas Valkiūnas and Mansour Aliabadian

Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060645 - 23 May 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3551

Abstract

Avian haemosporidians are widespread and diverse and are classified in the genera Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, and Fallisia. These species are known to cause haemosporidiosis and decreased fitness of their hosts. Despite the high diversity of habitats and animal species in Iran, only few studies have addressed avian haemosporidians in this geographic area. This study was performed in the south and southeast of Iran during the bird breeding seasons in 2017 and 2018, with the aim to partly fill in this gap. Blood samples of 237 passerine birds belonging to 41 species and 20 families were collected. Parasite infections were identified using a nested PCR protocol targeting a 479-base-pair fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) gene of Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon species. The overall prevalence of haemosporidian parasites was 51.1%, and 55 different lineages were identified, of which 15 cytb lineages were new globally. The lineages of Haemoproteus predominated (63.6% of all detected lineages), followed by Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium. Nineteen new host records of haemosporidian cytb lineages were identified, and the majority of them were found in resident bird species, indicating local transmission. Thirteen co-infections (9.8% of infected individuals) of Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon parasites in seven host species were observed. This study shows the presence of active local transmission of parasites to resident bird species in the southeast of Iran and contributes to the knowledge on haemosporidian parasite biodiversity in this poorly studied region of the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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12 pages, 1235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Sectional Study on the Prevalence and Factors Influencing Occurrence of Tick-Borne Encephalitis in Horses in Lithuania

by Arnoldas Pautienius, Austeja Armonaite, Evelina Simkute, Ruta Zagrabskaite, Jurate Buitkuviene, Russell Alpizar-Jara, Juozas Grigas, Indre Zakiene, Dainius Zienius, Algirdas Salomskas and Arunas Stankevicius

Pathogens 2021, 10(2), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020140 - 31 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2953

Abstract

Various animal species have been evaluated in depth for their potential as Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) sentinel species, although evidence for equine capacity is incomplete. Therefore, a comprehensive cross-sectional stratified serosurvey and PCR analysis of selected horses (n = 301) were performed in TBEV endemic localities in Lithuania. Attached and moving ticks (n = 241) have been collected from aforementioned hosts to evaluate natural infectivity of TBEV vectors (Ixodes spp.) in the recreational environments surrounding equestrian centers. All samples were screened for TBEV IgG and positive samples were confirmed by virus neutralization test (VNT). 113 (37.5%) horses from all counties of Lithuania tested positive for TBEV IgG, revealing age and sex indifferent results of equine seroprevalence that were significantly dependent on pedigree: horses of mixed breed were more susceptible to infection possibly due to their management practices. TBEV prevalence in equine species corresponded to TBEV-confirmed human cases in the precedent year. As much as 3.9% of horses were viraemic with TBEV-RNA with subsequent confirmation of TBEV European subtype. 4/38 of tested tick pools were positive for TBEV-RNA (Minimal infectious rate 1.2%). Several unknown microfoci were revealed during the study indicating areas of extreme risk close to popular human entertainment sites. The study provides important evidence in favor of horses’ usage as sentinel species, as equines could provide more detailed epidemiological mapping of TBEV, as well as more efficient collection of ticks for surveillance studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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19 pages, 1410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Computational Analysis of African Swine Fever Virus Protein Space for the Design of an Epitope-Based Vaccine Ensemble

by Albert Ros-Lucas, Florencia Correa-Fiz, Laia Bosch-Camós, Fernando Rodriguez and Julio Alonso-Padilla

Pathogens 2020, 9(12), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9121078 - 21 Dec 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4356

Abstract

African swine fever virus is the etiological agent of African swine fever, a transmissible severe hemorrhagic disease that affects pigs, causing massive economic losses. There is neither a treatment nor a vaccine available, and the only method to control its spread is by extensive culling of pigs. So far, classical vaccine development approaches have not yielded sufficiently good results in terms of concomitant safety and efficacy. Nowadays, thanks to advances in genomic and proteomic techniques, a reverse vaccinology strategy can be explored to design alternative vaccine formulations. In this study, ASFV protein sequences were analyzed using an in-house pipeline based on publicly available immunoinformatic tools to identify epitopes of interest for a prospective vaccine ensemble. These included experimentally validated sequences from the Immune Epitope Database, as well as de novo predicted sequences. Experimentally validated and predicted epitopes were prioritized following a series of criteria that included evolutionary conservation, presence in the virulent and currently circulating variant Georgia 2007/1, and lack of identity to either the pig proteome or putative proteins from pig gut microbiota. Following this strategy, 29 B-cell, 14 CD4⁺ T-cell and 6 CD8⁺ T-cell epitopes were selected, which represent a starting point to investigating the protective capacity of ASFV epitope-based vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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12 pages, 642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Imidocarb Dipropionate Lacks Efficacy against Theileria haneyi and Fails to Consistently Clear Theileria equi in Horses Co-Infected with T. haneyi

by Kelly Sears, Donald Knowles, Kelcey Dinkel, Philip W. Mshelia, Cynthia Onzere, Marta Silva and Lindsay Fry

Pathogens 2020, 9(12), 1035; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9121035 - 10 Dec 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2411

Abstract

Control of Theileria equi, the primary cause of equine theileriosis, is largely reliant on acaracide use and chemosterilization with imidocarb dipropionate (ID). However, it is currently unknown if ID is effective against Theileria haneyi, the recently identified second causative agent of equine theileriosis, or if the drug maintains effectiveness against T. equi in the presence of T. haneyi co-infection. The purpose of this study was to address these questions using ID treatment of the following three groups of horses: (1) five T. haneyi infected horses; (2) three T. haneyi-T. equi infected horses; and (3) three T. equi-T. haneyi infected horses. Clearance was first evaluated using nPCR for each Theileria sp. on peripheral blood samples. ID failed to clear T. haneyi in all three groups of horses, and failed to clear T. equi in two of three horses in group two. For definitive confirmation of infection status, horses in groups two and three underwent splenectomy post-treatment. The T. equi-nPCR-positive horses in group two developed severe clinical signs and were euthanized. Remaining horses exhibited moderate signs consistent with T. haneyi. Our results demonstrate that ID therapy lacks efficacy against T. haneyi, and T. haneyi-T. equi co-infection may interfere with ID clearance of T. equi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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0 pages, 1938 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Sequencing of Historical Isolates, K-mer Mining and High Serological Cross-Reactivity with Ross River Virus Argue against the Presence of Getah Virus in Australia

by Daniel J. Rawle, Wilson Nguyen, Troy Dumenil, Rhys Parry, David Warrilow, Bing Tang, Thuy T. Le, Andrii Slonchak, Alexander A. Khromykh, Viviana P. Lutzky, Kexin Yan and Andreas Suhrbier

Pathogens 2020, 9(10), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9100848 - 16 Oct 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3685

Abstract

Getah virus (GETV) is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus primarily associated with disease in horses and pigs in Asia. GETV was also reported to have been isolated from mosquitoes in Australia in 1961; however, retrieval and sequencing of the original isolates (N544 and N554), illustrated that these viruses were virtually identical to the 1955 GETV_MM2021 isolate from Malaysia. K-mer mining of the >40,000 terabases of sequence data in the Sequence Read Archive followed by BLASTn confirmation identified multiple GETV sequences in biosamples from Asia (often as contaminants), but not in biosamples from Australia. In contrast, sequence reads aligning to the Australian Ross River virus (RRV) were readily identified in Australian biosamples. To explore the serological relationship between GETV and other alphaviruses, an adult wild-type mouse model of GETV was established. High levels of cross-reactivity and cross-protection were evident for convalescent sera from mice infected with GETV or RRV, highlighting the difficulties associated with the interpretation of early serosurveys reporting GETV antibodies in Australian cattle and pigs. The evidence that GETV circulates in Australia is thus not compelling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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Review

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44 pages, 728 KiB

Open AccessReview

New Epidemiological Aspects of Animal Leishmaniosis in Europe: The Role of Vertebrate Hosts Other Than Dogs

by Luís Cardoso, Henk Schallig, Maria Flaminia Persichetti and Maria Grazia Pennisi

Pathogens 2021, 10(3), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10030307 - 06 Mar 2021

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 4395

Abstract

Infection with Leishmania parasites can lead to severe disease in humans and dogs, which act as a reservoir in zoonotic transmission. An increasing number of reports suggest that leishmaniosis is not restricted to dogs, but also affects many other mammalian and avian species. Consequently, this expands the potential reservoir and is of great public and veterinary health concern. The present study reviews, based on a comprehensive search of scientific literature published from 1 January 2001 to 31 December 2020, the currently available information on animal leishmaniosis in vertebrates in Europe, other than dogs and humans. This review provides an exhaustive list of mammals and birds in which infections with or exposure to Leishmania parasites have been detected in European countries. Most cases are reported from the Mediterranean region. Domestic animals, in particular cats, pose a concern because of close contact with humans. The wildlife reservoir is less likely to contribute to zoonotic transmission, with the exception of hares. This potentially large reservoir needs to be taken into account when developing control measures for zoonotic leishmaniosis. From a veterinary point of view, it is important that veterinarians are better aware of leishmaniosis and trained in its management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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22 pages, 320 KiB

Open AccessReview

Clinical Pathology, Immunopathology and Advanced Vaccine Technology in Bovine Theileriosis: A Review

by Onyinyechukwu Ada Agina, Mohd Rosly Shaari, Nur Mahiza Md Isa, Mokrish Ajat, Mohd Zamri-Saad and Hazilawati Hamzah

Pathogens 2020, 9(9), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090697 - 25 Aug 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4443

Abstract

Theileriosis is a blood piroplasmic disease that adversely affects the livestock industry, especially in tropical and sub-tropical countries. It is caused by haemoprotozoan of the Theileria genus, transmitted by hard ticks and which possesses a complex life cycle. The clinical course of the disease ranges from benign to lethal, but subclinical infections can occur depending on the infecting Theileria species. The main clinical and clinicopathological manifestations of acute disease include fever, lymphadenopathy, anorexia and severe loss of condition, conjunctivitis, and pale mucous membranes that are associated with Theileria-induced immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia and/or non-regenerative anaemia. Additionally, jaundice, increases in hepatic enzymes, and variable leukocyte count changes are seen. Theileria annulata and Theileria parva induce an incomplete transformation of lymphoid and myeloid cell lineages, and these cells possess certain phenotypes of cancer cells. Pathogenic genotypes of Theileria orientalis have been recently associated with severe production losses in Southeast Asia and some parts of Europe. The infection and treatment method (ITM) is currently used in the control and prevention of T. parva infection, and recombinant vaccines are still under evaluation. The use of gene gun immunization against T. parva infection has been recently evaluated. This review, therefore, provides an overview of the clinicopathological and immunopathological profiles of Theileria-infected cattle and focus on DNA vaccines consisting of plasmid DNA with genes of interest, molecular adjuvants, and chitosan as the most promising next-generation vaccine against bovine theileriosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animal Vector-Borne Diseases)

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