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Nutrients
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Breast Milk Composition and Feeding Strategies for Healthy Infant Growth
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Breast Milk Composition and Feeding Strategies for Healthy Infant Growth

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Pediatric Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 5 November 2026 | Viewed by 1187

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Vass Reka Anna

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Laboratory on Human Reproduction, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
Interests: breastmilk composition; breastfeeding; endocrinology; metabolic hormones
Prof. Dr. Didier Vieau

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. UMR-S1172, Lille Neurosciences & Cognition, University of Lille, INSERM, CHU Lille, 59000 Lille, France
2. Alzheimer & Tauopathies, LabEX DISTALZ, 59045 Lille, France
Interests: molecular cloning; cloning; nutrition; cell culture; protein expression; hypertension; insulin resistance; metabolism; metabolic diseases; diabetes; perinatal programming; neuroendocrinology: Alzheimer disease; adaptation to stress

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Breastfeeding plays a crucial role in shaping infant nutrition, influencing both prompt health outcomes and long-term developmental trajectories. Breastfeeding is not merely a biological process but a dynamic interplay between mother and child, where each dyad uniquely contributes to the nutritional landscape of infancy. Responsive feeding—recognizing and responding to infant hunger and satiety signals—promotes healthy growth patterns and strengthens the mother-infant bond. Ensuring adequate maternal nutrition and hydration further supports optimal breast milk quality. Understanding these patterns may enhance support for effective and secure feeding practices. Diverse elements shape human lactation; stressors faced by mothers or socioeconomic disparities can significantly alter lactation processes, thereby impacting the quality of nutrition provided to the infant. The existence of adequate policies and protocols is recognized as the foundational step for promoting, protecting, and supporting optimal breastfeeding practices. Despite the evidence-based recommendations and guidelines, a considerable proportion of infants are fed in a way that impairs the maintenance of exclusive breastfeeding during postnatal adaptation. Overall, tailored feeding strategies and understanding breast milk’s composition are essential for promoting lifelong health in infants.

As research continues to unfold, in this Special Issue of Nutrients, works aim to emphasize the most recent results of breast milk research that considers both individual circumstances and systemic factors affecting current infant nutrition trends.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Vass Reka Anna
Prof. Dr. Didier Vieau
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Nutrients is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • infant nutrition
  • breast milk
  • colostrum
  • lactation
  • formula feeding
  • exclusive breastfeeding
  • macronutrients
  • immune support
  • on-demand feeding
  • responsive feeding
  • maternal nutrition
  • infant growth
  • socioeconomic status

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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15 pages, 3900 KB  
Article
Omega Fatty Acid and Protein Profiles of Colostrum and Transitional Milk in Mexican Women With and Without Gestational Diabetes: A Cross-Sectional Study
by Larissa Martínez-Ortega, Carlos A. Ibáñez, Isabel Omaña-Guzmán, Consuelo Lomas Soria, José Leopoldo Aguilar Faisal, Omar Granados Portillo, Ana Méndez Carballo, Emilia Lozano González, Fausto Coronel Cruz, José Carranco Martínez, Víctor Carmona Ornelas, Nayely Garibay-Nieto and Elena Zambrano
Nutrients 2026, 18(11), 1803; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18111803 - 3 Jun 2026
Viewed by 268
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) involves metabolic alterations that may affect breast milk composition. Imbalances in protein and fatty acid (FA) profiles have been reported in mature milk from mothers with GDM. However, evidence for colostrum and transitional milk is limited, despite [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) involves metabolic alterations that may affect breast milk composition. Imbalances in protein and fatty acid (FA) profiles have been reported in mature milk from mothers with GDM. However, evidence for colostrum and transitional milk is limited, despite the key role of ω-3 and ω-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in neonatal neurodevelopment. This study compared ω-3 and ω-6 PUFAs and protein concentrations in colostrum and transitional milk from women with and without GDM. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted from January 2023 to December 2024. Women aged ≥ 18 years with GDM and non-GDM pregnancies recruited at Hospital General de México “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga” were included. Colostrum and transitional milk samples were collected at 0–5 and 6–14 days postpartum, respectively. To assess whether postpartum time (hours) and maternal group (non-GDM vs. GDM) affected milk volume, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed. Differences in milk composition between the GDM and non-GDM groups were assessed using Student’s t test or the Mann–Whitney U test, according to variable distribution. Results: A total of 71 milk samples were analyzed: 51 colostrum samples (25 from women with GDM and 26 from women with non-GDM) and 20 transitional milk samples (10 from women with GDM and 10 from women with non-GDM). A moderate correlation was observed between milk volume and postpartum time, with no significant differences between the GDM and non-GDM groups. Colostrum from women with GDM had lower protein content compared with milk from women with non-GDM (3.8 ± 0.4 vs. 5.2 ± 0.5 g/dL, p = 0.02) and transitional milk (1.4 ± 0.2 vs. 2.2 ± 0.2 g/dL, p = 0.02). Transitional milk from GDM group showed higher total fat (5.7 ± 1.8 vs. 2.0 ± 0.4 g/100 g, p = 0.05) and fat-to-protein ratio (3.9 ± 1.1 vs. 1.0 ± 0.3, p = 0.02), along with an increased ω-6/ω-3 ratio driven by higher linoleic acid and lower α-linolenic acid concentrations. Conclusions: GDM was associated with variations in breast milk protein and FA profiles with a potential negative impact on the newborn’s neurodevelopment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breast Milk Composition and Feeding Strategies for Healthy Infant Growth)
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13 pages, 535 KB  
Article
Maternal Methyl-Group Donor Intake and Neonatal Birth Size in Singleton IVF Pregnancies
by Szilvia Bokor, Regina Felső, Ildikó Csölle, Tícia Oláh, Noémi Szabó, Róbert Herczeg, Attila Gyenesei, Reka Anna Vass, Simone Funke, Tibor Ertl and Dénes Molnár
Nutrients 2026, 18(11), 1693; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18111693 - 26 May 2026
Viewed by 241
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Maternal intake of methyl-group donors (MGD) during pregnancy may influence fetal development, yet its role in in vitro fertilization (IVF) pregnancies remains poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate maternal intake of MGDs during late pregnancy and [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Maternal intake of methyl-group donors (MGD) during pregnancy may influence fetal development, yet its role in in vitro fertilization (IVF) pregnancies remains poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate maternal intake of MGDs during late pregnancy and its association with neonatal outcomes in IVF versus spontaneously (S) conceived pregnancies. Methods: We assessed third-trimester, daily maternal intake of MGD (folate, betaine, choline, methionine, and folic acid) using a validated food-frequency questionnaire, and maternal supplement intake using a structured questionnaire. Methyl-donor nutrient score (MDNS) was calculated based on deciles of MGD intake. Serum folic acid and vitamin B12 concentrations were measured using standardized immunochemical assay. Predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. Anthropometric data were measured from singleton newborns (weight, length, head- and waist circumference, body composition) and mothers (height, weight, body composition) after delivery. Statistical analysis was conducted using R (4.1.2v). Results: 265 mother–child pairs were included in the study (IVF n = 83). Daily dietary intake of MGDs was similar between groups, but IVF mothers reported significantly higher daily folic acid (668.7 ± 1050.9 vs. 418.8 ± 419.2 µg, p = 0.0034) and vitamin B12 (11.07 ± 31.58 vs. 7.95 ± 29.00 µg, p = 0.0078) supplementation. Serum analyses were available in a subgroup (n = 131, IVF n = 61) of mothers, showing higher postpartum folate (IVF: 10.96 ± 5.54 vs. S: 8.29 ± 4.72 µg/L, p = 0.0064) and vitamin B12 (IVF: 288.22 ± 113.82 vs. S: 233.70 ± 78.23 ng/L, p = 0.0053). Maternal daily dietary choline intakes were significantly below recommendations (IVF: 251.9 ± 98.5 mg, S: 243.8 ± 106.8 mg). Among 151 singleton neonates (IVF n = 57), anthropometric parameters did not differ between IVF and spontaneously conceived groups and were not associated with MDNS tertiles. Conclusions: Maternal MGD intake during third trimester of pregnancy was not associated with neonatal anthropometric outcomes in singleton pregnancies. Consistently low dietary choline intake highlights a potential nutritional gap warranting improved dietary guidance and supplementation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breast Milk Composition and Feeding Strategies for Healthy Infant Growth)
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9 pages, 796 KB  
Brief Report
Characteristics Associated with Infant Feeding with Both Breast Milk and Formula Milk
by Kenta Watakabe, Sayaka Kawada, Shin Horiuchi, Rin Asahiro, Airi Tanaka, Kyoka Tei, Yayoi Murano, Tomoyuki Nakazawa, Ken Sakamaki, Hiromichi Shoji and Daisuke Yoneoka
Nutrients 2026, 18(11), 1726; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18111726 - 28 May 2026
Viewed by 197
Abstract
Background: Breastfeeding benefits mothers and infants, and the promotion of breastfeeding is important. Feeding strategies include exclusive breastfeeding, feeding with both human milk and formula, and exclusive formula feeding. Objectives: This study was conducted to clarify the actual situation by assuming [...] Read more.
Background: Breastfeeding benefits mothers and infants, and the promotion of breastfeeding is important. Feeding strategies include exclusive breastfeeding, feeding with both human milk and formula, and exclusive formula feeding. Objectives: This study was conducted to clarify the actual situation by assuming that mixed feeding comprises several groups with different characteristics. At the same time, the study also aimed to clarify the factors associated with breastfeeding. Methods: Single-term infants without underlying disease born at Tokyo Metropolitan Hospital between 2019 and 2024 participated in this study. The distribution of formula intake among infants receiving both human milk and formula was analyzed using a Gaussian mixture model, and the optimal number of distribution components was calculated using the Bayesian information criterion. Using linear regression analysis, factors associated with formula intake were identified. Results: A total of 2628 participants (exclusive breastfeeding, 842 (32.0%); mixed feeding with human milk and formula, 1496 (56.9%); and exclusive formula feeding, 290 (11.0%)) were included in the study. Linear regression analysis showed that the factors associated with amount of formula intake were late preterm birth (coefficient 39.7, p < 0.01), maternal age (reference under 30 y, age ≥ 30 y and <35 y coefficient 6.3, p = 0.66, age ≥ 35 y and <40 y coefficient 45.5, p < 0.01, age ≥ 40 y coefficient 106.9, p < 0.01) and delivery mode (cesarean section, coefficient 53.6, p < 0.01). Conclusions: Feeding strategies involving both human and formula milk are not homogeneous, and interventions should be developed based on these differences. Moreover, several factors were found to be associated with breastfeeding, which may help promote breastfeeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breast Milk Composition and Feeding Strategies for Healthy Infant Growth)
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