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Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition
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Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 2504

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Zhixuan Han

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Guest Editor
School of Earth Sciences, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China
Interests: geochemical exploration; gold and rare earth deposits
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Bimin Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Langfang 065000, China
Interests: deep-penetrating geochemical exploration; global-scale geochemical mapping
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Critical mineral resources are vital for economic growth, improving the quality of life, national defense, and the overall functioning of modern society. Geochemistry is an important tool in prospecting these critical minerals, playing a pivotal role in the exploration of a number of critical mineral resources. However, as the degree of exploration continues to increase, geochemical exploration faces increasing challenges. Ore bodies are buried at increasing depths, presenting increasingly complex geological situations and landscapes, and a number of emerging critical minerals are gradually coming to the attention of the prospecting industry. We must further develop geochemical methods that are indicative of these critical mineral resources in particular circumstances.

Thanks to the enthusiastic support of the academic community, the first edition of this Special Issue successfully published 10 high-quality papers. Building on this strong foundation, the second edition aims to further explore emerging research and deepen our understanding of geochemical prospecting methods for critical mineral deposits.

This Special Issue of Minerals aims to present a set of articles on geochemical approaches applied to critical mineral exploration. Potential topics of interest including, but not are limited to, the following:

  • Dispersion mechanisms of ore-forming and pathfinder elements in covered or weathered terrains;
  • Near-surface geochemical exploration techniques and their application;
  • New innovative exploration methods for vectoring toward concealed mineral deposits;
  • Mineral exploration using indicator mineral geochemistry;
  • Recent advances in hydro- and bio-isotope geochemistry applied to mineral exploration;
  • Geochemical exploration for low-carbon energy mineral resources such as lithium, rare earth and uranium.

By compiling cutting-edge research and fostering academic discourse, this Special Issue seeks to drive forward the understanding and development of geochemical exploration for critical mineral deposits.

We look forward to receiving your contributions and advancing the field together through this Special Issue of Minerals.

Dr. Zhixuan Han
Dr. Bimin Zhang
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • geochemical exploration
  • exploration methods
  • geochemical indicators
  • critical metals/minerals
  • transported cover
  • concealed/buried ore deposits
  • indicator mineral geochemistry
  • deep-penetrating geochemistry

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 12108 KB  
Article
Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Geochronology of Hydrothermal and Magmatic Apatites in the Xiangshan Ore Field, South China: Implications for U-Pb-Zn Polymetallic Mineralization
by Qingkun Yang, Yubin Liu, Fusheng Guo, Hao Jiang, Yongjie Yan and Yun Wang
Minerals 2026, 16(4), 389; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16040389 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 418
Abstract
The timing of uranium mineralization in the Xiangshan ore field has long been controversial. Although various geochronometers have been applied by previous researchers, including pyrite Rb-Sr, mica Ar-Ar, and fluorite Sm-Nd, the results remain inconsistent and inconclusive. In recent years, the discovery of [...] Read more.
The timing of uranium mineralization in the Xiangshan ore field has long been controversial. Although various geochronometers have been applied by previous researchers, including pyrite Rb-Sr, mica Ar-Ar, and fluorite Sm-Nd, the results remain inconsistent and inconclusive. In recent years, the discovery of abundant Pb-Zn veins in the deeper parts of the Xiangshan ore field has further complicated the interpretation of its metallogenic history. In this study, abundant vein-type hydrothermal apatites closely associated with U-Pb-Zn polymetallic mineralization were identified in both uranium and Pb-Zn ore veins. Combined major-element Electron Probe Microprobe Analysis (EPMA), Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) U-Pb dating, and trace-element analysis were conducted on these apatite grains. The results suggest a mineralization age of 130.9 ± 1.1 Ma for the Shannan uranium deposit, which is consistent with the previously reported apatite U-Pb age of 131.3 ± 7.2 Ma from the Zoujiashan uranium deposit and coincides with the main pulse of volcanic-intrusive activity in the Xiangshan ore field (133–137 Ma). The deep Niutoushan Pb-Zn deposit suggests a younger mineralization age of 124.5 ± 1.3 Ma, which is consistent with a thermal event age of 125.6 Ma determined by zircon fission-track dating and the zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb age of late-stage granite porphyry (125.4 ± 1.0 Ma). These ages may constrain the timing of U-Pb-Zn polymetallic mineralization in the Xiangshan ore field. Both magmatic and hydrothermal apatites are classified as fluorapatite and exhibit similar chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns. Compared with magmatic apatites, hydrothermal apatites are characterized by elevated Th, U, Ca, and Sr contents, depletion in light rare earth elements (LREEs), Mn, and Na, and distinctly lower Th/U ratios. On major-element variation diagrams, magmatic and hydrothermal apatites define coherent trends but display clear compositional differences related to their formation stages. Apatites from uranium ore veins show strongly negative Eu anomalies and weakly positive Ce anomalies, similar to magmatic apatites. In contrast, apatites from Pb-Zn ore veins display positive Eu anomalies and weakly negative Ce anomalies, with lower Mn and Ga contents and higher SO3 contents relative to both magmatic apatites and hydrothermal apatites from uranium ore veins. These features indicate that the ore-forming fluids during Pb-Zn mineralization were characterized by significantly higher oxygen fugacity than those during uranium mineralization and magmatism. Combined with published Sr isotopic data for the Xiangshan ore field, we propose that both uranium and Pb-Zn mineralization were genetically linked to the prolonged magmatic evolution of the deep volcanic-intrusive complex. The subsequent incursion of meteoric water modified the physicochemical conditions of the ore-forming system, particularly during the formation of the Pb-Zn mineralization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 5714 KB  
Article
GeoCLA: An Integrated CNN-BiLSTM-Attention Framework for Geochemical Anomaly Detection in the Hatu Region, Xinjiang
by Yuheng Zhou, Yongzhi Wang, Shibo Wen, Yan Ning, Shaohui Wang, Guangpeng Zhang and Jingjing Wen
Minerals 2026, 16(3), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16030330 - 20 Mar 2026
Viewed by 285
Abstract
Geochemical anomaly detection is a critical stage in mineral exploration, playing a key role in predicting potential mineral targets. Traditional methodologies often struggle to integrate the spatial structure of geochemical data with underlying geological constraints effectively. To address this limitation, we propose GeoCLA, [...] Read more.
Geochemical anomaly detection is a critical stage in mineral exploration, playing a key role in predicting potential mineral targets. Traditional methodologies often struggle to integrate the spatial structure of geochemical data with underlying geological constraints effectively. To address this limitation, we propose GeoCLA, a geochemical anomaly detection framework that integrates Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) networks, and an Attention Mechanism (AM). This integrated spatial-attention architecture captures complex correlations among multiple features to improve anomaly identification. The method constructs spatial sequential samples from geochemical data. The CNNs extract local spatial patterns, the BiLSTM models sequential dependencies, and the AM enhances the representation of critical features. Anomaly scores are computed using the reconstruction error between the model output and the original data. In addition, a fault-distance weighting factor is incorporated to build a comprehensive anomaly evaluation index. The proposed model was applied to the Hatu gold district in Xinjiang, China. Both visual analysis and quantitative evaluation demonstrate effectiveness, achieving a ROC-AUC of 0.86 and a mineral occurrence coverage rate of 97% within moderate-to-high anomaly prospective areas, significantly outperforming baseline methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition)
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26 pages, 6365 KB  
Article
Geochemical Behaviors and Constraints on REE Enrichment in Weathered Crust of Shallow Metamorphic Rocks: Insights from the Getengzui Ion-Adsorption REE Deposit, South China
by Huihu Fan, Zhenya Chen, Luping Zeng, Dehai Wu, Fuyong Qi, Zhenghui Chen, Tao Wang, Wei Wan and Shuilong Wang
Minerals 2026, 16(3), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16030321 - 19 Mar 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
Ion-adsorption rare earth element (REE) deposits represent strategic critical resources in China, which were traditionally considered to be predominantly hosted in granite weathering crusts. However, the recent discovery of new deposit types within the weathering crusts of shallow metamorphic rocks in South China [...] Read more.
Ion-adsorption rare earth element (REE) deposits represent strategic critical resources in China, which were traditionally considered to be predominantly hosted in granite weathering crusts. However, the recent discovery of new deposit types within the weathering crusts of shallow metamorphic rocks in South China has opened up novel exploration frontiers, while research on their metallogenic mechanisms remains insufficient. To elucidate the REE enrichment mechanisms in shallow metamorphic rock weathering crusts, this study focuses on the Getengzui ion-adsorption REE deposit in southern Jiangxi Province. Twenty-four samples were collected from the weathering crust profiles of the Qingbaikouan Shenshan and Kuli Formations. Multiple analytical approaches were employed, including major and trace element analysis, Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), Base Leaching Index (BA), and quantitative evaluation of element mass transfer coefficients (τ). Trace element spider diagrams, REE distribution patterns, and A-CN-K diagram analysis were also utilized. The results reveal that the weathering crusts have progressed to the middle–late stage of chemical weathering. The average CIA value is 83 for the middle-upper part of the completely weathered horizon in the Kuli Formation. In contrast, for the completely weathered horizon in the Shenshan Formation, the value is 86. Intense chemical weathering has resulted in the near-complete decomposition of primary silicate minerals and extensive leaching of base cations. This progress has created an acidic pore water environment, which is critical for REE mobilization. REEs exhibit characteristics of in situ secondary enrichment, with significant enrichment of ΣREE in the middle-upper part of the completely weathered horizon. The peak τ(ΣREE) values reach 0.78 and 2.43 for the Kuli and Shenshan Formations, respectively. Apatite dissolution is identified as the primary source of REE ions. Differences exist in the geochemical mobility sequences of elements between the two formations. REE enrichment is controlled by multi-stage geochemical barriers, including an oxidation barrier and a clay adsorption barrier. The oxidation barrier preferentially fixes Ce4+, whereas the clay adsorption barrier serves as the dominant mechanism for large-scale REE enrichment. Parent rock lithology is the primary factor governing the efficiency, scale, and fractionation characteristics of REE enrichment. The Kuli Formation is favorable for forming the thick, large-scale orebodies enriched in light rare earth elements (LREEs). In the contrast, the Shenshan Formation tends to host higher-grade orebodies, characterized by a relatively balanced ratio of LREEs and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). This study clarifies the main controlling factors for ion-adsorption REE mineralization in two shallow metamorphic rocks. It thereby provides a theoretical basis for future exploration. This framework is applicable to analogous REE resources within shallow metamorphic rock distributions across South China and nationwide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition)
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29 pages, 29190 KB  
Article
Metallogenic Prediction for Copper–Nickel Sulfide Deposits in the Eastern and Central Tianshan Based on Multi-Modal Feature Fusion
by Haonan Wang, Bimin Zhang, Miao Xie, Yue Sun, Wei Ye, Chunfang Dong, Zimu Yang and Xueqiu Wang
Minerals 2026, 16(3), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16030318 - 18 Mar 2026
Viewed by 249
Abstract
The deep integration of machine learning technology with geological prospecting has brought to the forefront a key challenge: how to construct geological-mineralization models by fusing multi-source data, select model features with guidance from metallogenic factors, build multi-source metallogenic prediction models with geological constraints, [...] Read more.
The deep integration of machine learning technology with geological prospecting has brought to the forefront a key challenge: how to construct geological-mineralization models by fusing multi-source data, select model features with guidance from metallogenic factors, build multi-source metallogenic prediction models with geological constraints, and ultimately achieve a thorough integration of domain knowledge and machine intelligence. The Eastern-Central Tianshan region is one of China’s most important copper–nickel mineral resource bases, predominantly hosting magmatic copper–nickel sulfide deposits with significant resource potential. In this context, this paper proposes a metallogenic prediction model based on multi-modal feature fusion technology. The model employs a Residual Neural Network (ResNet) incorporating a Squeeze-and-Excitation (SE) attention mechanism and a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) to extract features from different modalities. It integrates multi-source data, including geochemical information, geological metallogenic factors, and aeromagnetic data. A cross-modal feature interaction module, constructed using attention weighting and a gating mechanism, enables deep fusion of the features. After training, the model achieved a prediction accuracy of 97% on the test set. Compared to a unimodal model constructed using Random Forest, the confidence and discriminative capability of the training results were significantly enhanced, validating the effectiveness of multi-modal feature fusion. Applying the trained model to the study area, a total of 11 prospective metallogenic zones were delineated. These include 4 zones in the peripheries of known deposits and 7 zones in previously unexplored (blank) areas. Notably, some known mineral occurrences fall within the predicted blank-area targets, validating the feasibility and significant value of multi-modal feature fusion in mineral prediction. This work provides a novel methodology for the subsequent integrated processing of multi-source data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition)
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25 pages, 5627 KB  
Article
Performance of Electro-Geochemical Survey in Locating Hidden Lead–Zinc–Antimony Deposits: A Case Study of the Bancai Mining Area in Hechi, Guangxi
by Hong Zhao, Meilan Wen, Wen Gao, Panfeng Liu, Yuxiong Jiang, Xiaohan Zhang, Jiajia Ma, Guangkun Luo and Xuanheng Ren
Minerals 2026, 16(3), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16030314 - 17 Mar 2026
Viewed by 262
Abstract
The demand for lead–zinc–antimony ore resources in China has increased steadily, while shallow deposits are approaching depletion, leading to intensified exploration for deep, concealed orebodies. Electro-geochemical surveys, as a penetrative geochemical exploration technique, are particularly effective in areas with thick overburden. In this [...] Read more.
The demand for lead–zinc–antimony ore resources in China has increased steadily, while shallow deposits are approaching depletion, leading to intensified exploration for deep, concealed orebodies. Electro-geochemical surveys, as a penetrative geochemical exploration technique, are particularly effective in areas with thick overburden. In this study, the Bancai area in Hechi, Guangxi, was selected to evaluate the applicability of this method for concealed mineral exploration. Feasibility testing was conducted along the A4 profile over an engineering-controlled orebody. Distinct electro-geochemical anomalies were identified directly above the known orebody, showing strong spatial correspondence and favorable ore-indicating characteristics, confirming the effectiveness of the method in the study area. Based on the deposit’s geological characteristics, prospecting indicators were established by integrating geological features, electro-geochemical responses, and wall-rock alteration. A geological electro-geochemical prospecting model was constructed for the Bancai mining area and applied for deep exploration of the Bancai B block. By analyzing the spatial distribution of electro-geochemical anomalies and integrating geological conditions, mineralization potential, and related factors, three prospective target areas were delineated to provide guidance for subsequent explorations. Among these targets, Target Area III exhibits favorable structural conditions, well-developed calcite veins, and pronounced superposition of multi-element geochemical anomalies, indicating considerable potential for further mineral exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition)
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26 pages, 26611 KB  
Article
Data-Driven Decoupling of Metallogenic Patterns: A Case Study of Skarn-Type vs. Hydrothermal Vein-Type Pb-Zn Deposits in the Shanghulin Area, Inner Mongolia, China
by Lichun Fu, Guihu Chen, Qingyuan Song, Tiankun Xie, He Yuan, Xuefeng Li, Yu Su, Keyan Xiao and Rui Tang
Minerals 2026, 16(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/min16010006 - 20 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 484
Abstract
The close spatial and genetic coexistence of Skarn-type and Hydrothermal Vein-type Pb-Zn deposits in the Shanghulin area, Inner Mongolia, poses a significant challenge to conventional “ undifferentiated” prediction models. This study aims to decouple these distinct metallogenic patterns using a data-driven, “type-specific modeling” [...] Read more.
The close spatial and genetic coexistence of Skarn-type and Hydrothermal Vein-type Pb-Zn deposits in the Shanghulin area, Inner Mongolia, poses a significant challenge to conventional “ undifferentiated” prediction models. This study aims to decouple these distinct metallogenic patterns using a data-driven, “type-specific modeling” strategy, establishing separate prediction models for Skarn-type and Hydrothermal Vein-type mineralization. Our workflow first employs Lasso–RFECV for rigorous pre-screening of over 60 geoscience features to identify the optimal predictive subset. Subsequently, an XGBoost model is trained on these selected features, and the SHAP framework is applied to interpret the geological significance of its decision logic. The results confirm two distinct indicator systems. (1) The Skarn-type model is controlled by spatial proximity to a heat source, heavily relying on Distance_to_Volcano and high-temperature indicators (CLR_Mo, CLR_W, CLR_Mn). (2) The Hydrothermal Vein-type model is “chemical fingerprint-driven”, prioritizing CLR_Y and identifying a complex “leaching-enrichment” pattern: mineralization requires simultaneous wall-rock leaching (low CLR_Al2O3, low CLR_Y) and specific metal enrichment (high CLR_Co, high CLR_Zn). This study confirms the controlling factors: Skarn-type deposits are governed by magmatic proximity, whereas Hydrothermal Vein-type deposits are defined by specific alteration geochemical signatures. The proposed “Lasso–RFECV → XGBoost → SHAP” workflow successfully decouples these independent, geologically meaningful prospectivity models from complex data, offering a new paradigm for precise exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemical Exploration for Critical Mineral Resources, 2nd Edition)
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