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Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Advanced Materials Characterization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 June 2025 | Viewed by 15373

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Anna Zawada-Tomkiewicz

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Koszalin University of Technology (Politechnika Koszalinska), Koszalin, Poland
Interests: surface metrology; time–frequency and wavelet analysis; neural networks; diagnostics; evaluation of dimensions and shape; computed tomography

Dr. Krzysztof Ciecieląg

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Department of Production Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, Poland
Interests: machining; polymer composite; metal alloys; defect detection; surface layer

Dr. Árpád Czifra

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Institute of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
Interests: surface roughness measurement; characterization of surface topographies; microgeometrical properties of coated surfaces

Prof. Dr. Kazimierz Zaleski

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Department of Production Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, Lublin, Poland
Interests: machining; brushing and shot peening; metal alloys; surface layer

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Topography is of great importance for the functional behavior of the surface, strongly interacting with material properties and operating conditions. The characterization of surface topography includes measurement, visualization and quantification, which currently involves mainly digital techniques and the extensive use of computers: data acquisition, conditioning, visualization, elaboration and quantification.

The goal of this Special Issue is to present new methods and directions in the characterization of the microtopographic surface in relation to its material structure. Papers on the novelty of various surface topography measurement, analysis and characterization techniques are expected, but papers on new perspectives on the characterization of engineering surfaces in production and tribological operation may also be accepted.

Dr. Anna Zawada-Tomkiewicz
Dr. Krzysztof Ciecieląg
Dr. Árpád Czifra
Prof. Dr. Kazimierz Zaleski
Guest Editors

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Keywords

measurements of the surface topography of materials
characterization and modeling of the surface topography of materials
analysis and characterization of surface texture features
visual features of the surface of the material
tribological properties of the surface topography of materials
models of the shaping and optimization of surface topography
characteristics of the topography of worn surfaces
surface characteristics in additive manufacturing
topography of the surface of composite materials
surface topography of porous materials and foams

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 5985 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of the Chamber-Filling Ratio in Vibratory Shot Peening on Selected Surface Layer Properties of 30HGSA

by Agnieszka Skoczylas and Kazimierz Zaleski

Materials 2025, 18(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18010008 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 458

Abstract

This study investigated the influence of the filling ratio of the working chamber and ball diameter in vibratory shot peening (VSP) on select properties of the surface layer. The tested material was 30HGSA steel, which is effectively used in the aviation industry. The following were analyzed: the surface roughness parameters, the shape of the Abbott–Firestone curve, the bearing area ratio Smr_(c=50%), the microhardness distribution, the microhardness on the surface, and the residual stress σ on the surface. A change in the ratio of peaks and valleys in the maximum height of the profile was observed. After VSP, the valleys were dominant over the peaks. The most favorable values of the analyzed roughness parameters (Sz, Sp, and Sv) were obtained for d = 9.4 mm and k_d = 33%. The bearing area ratio Smr_(c=50%) was approximately 50 times higher than before VSP (the most favorable for d = 9.4 mm and k_d = 33%). The largest thickness of the strengthened layer of 200 μm and the greatest increase in the microhardness equal to ΔHV 0.05 = 109 were obtained after VSP was conducted using the ball diameter d = 14.3 mm k_d = 33%. Regardless of the VSP conditions, the absolute value of compressive stresses increased; the highest σ stresses were obtained for d = 3.0 mm and k_d = 33%, and they were 88% higher than before the treatment. It was concluded that the recommended chamber-filling ratio for beneficial properties is k_d = 33%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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20 pages, 37498 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of the Deburring Efficiency of EN-AW 7075 Aluminum Alloy Parts with Complex Geometric Shapes Considering the Tool Path Strategy During Multi-Axis Brushing

by Jakub Matuszak, Andrzej Kawalec and Michał Gdula

Materials 2024, 17(24), 6267; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246267 - 21 Dec 2024

Viewed by 751

Abstract

The paper presents the results of an analysis of the effect of brushing on the edge condition of workpieces with complex geometric shapes, formed during milling, on a five-axis DMU 100 monoBLOCK machining center. A set of EN-AW 7075 aluminum alloy specimens with curvilinear edges requiring multi-axis machining was prepared. The change of edge condition after the milling process was realized using Xebec tools with flexible ceramic fibers. The effects of brush fiber type and parameters related to tool design were analyzed. Different brushing strategies were employed on the five-axis machining center. It was shown that, for curvilinear edges, there were different effects for concave and convex edges depending on the employed tool strategy, including the type of tool, its configuration, and its orientation towards the workpiece. For a lead angle of β = 0°, the machined edge was characterized by variable chamfer widths, in spite of maintaining other machining parameters constant. The use of a lead angle β > 0 produced a stable edge with repeatable characteristics. The range of fiber interaction increased with increasing the lead angle and fiber working length. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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18 pages, 14812 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of the Cooling Method on Cutting Force and Recurrence Analysis in Polymer Composite Milling

by Krzysztof Ciecieląg

Materials 2024, 17(23), 5981; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17235981 - 6 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 804

Abstract

This work investigates the milling of the surface of glass and carbon fiber-reinforced plastics using tools with a polycrystalline diamond insert. The milling process was conducted under three different conditions, namely without the use of a cooling liquid, with oil mist cooling, and with emulsion cooling. The milling process of composites was conducted with variable technological parameters. The variable milling parameters were feed per tooth and cutting speed. The novelty of this work is the use of recurrence methods based on the cutting force signal to analyze the milling of composites with three types of cooling. The primary aim of the study was to determine the effect of variable technological milling parameters on cutting force and to select recurrence quantifications that would be sensitive to the cooling method. It has been shown that recurrence quantifications such as determinism (DET), laminarity (LAM), averaged diagonal length (L), trapping time (TT), recurrence time of the second type (T₂), and entropy (ENTR) are sensitive to the cooling methods applied for the tested composite materials. The results have shown that it is possible to determine common ranges of changes in sensitive recurrence quantifications for the two tested variables parameters of milling: 0.63–0.94 (DET), 0.69–0.97 (LAM), 7.30–13.48 (L), 2.92–4.98 (TT), 17.01–38.25 (T₂), 2.02–3.16 (ENTR). The ANOVA analysis results have confirmed that the studied variables have a significant impact on the recurrence quantifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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14 pages, 5593 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Selected Factors of Vibratory Work Hardening Machining on the Properties of CuZn30 Brass

by Damian Bańkowski, Anna Kiljan, Irena M. Hlaváčová and Piotr Młynarczyk

Materials 2024, 17(23), 5913; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17235913 - 3 Dec 2024

Viewed by 669

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of selected vibratory strengthening machining factors on the properties of CuZn30 brass. Vibratory strengthening machining was carried out using metal media dedicated to polishing processes, which also contributed to strengthening the treated surfaces. The test samples were cut with an abrasive water jet and recrystallized to obtain a soft microstructure. An orthogonal, two-factor five-level plan was used for the study. The effect of vibration frequency and vibratory machining time on selected changes in parameters of the geometric structure of the surface and hardness of the surface layer was determined using Statistica software version 10 (64-bit). Higher vibration frequencies for vibratory machining increased the hardness of machined surfaces by as much as 50 HV_0.02. The arithmetic mean deviation of the height of surface irregularities from the reference plane, Sa, decreases with increasing the time of vibratory machining. A value of Sa = 0.168 µm was obtained after 87 min of consolidation, compared to an initial surface of S_a = 0.65 µm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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24 pages, 11670 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of the Traverse Speed of the Stylus Tip on Changes in the Areal Texture Parameters of Machined Surfaces

by Pawel Pawlus, Rafal Reizer and Wiesław Żelasko

Materials 2024, 17(20), 5052; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17205052 - 16 Oct 2024

Viewed by 845

Abstract

Measurements of areal (3D) surface texture using optical methods are very popular because of the short measurement time compared to the stylus tip technique. However, they are very sensitive to measurement errors. In some cases, optical measurements are not recommended. The stylus measurement method is well known and can be the reference technique for surface texture measurement. The main disadvantage is the long measuring time. This time can be shortened using higher speeds of measurement. The effect of the speed of the measurement of stylus profilometer on changes in surface texture parameters was studied. Fifty surface topographies were measured using the stylus profilometer at speeds 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 mm/s in the same places. Surfaces after lapping, polishing, grinding, milling, laser texturing, and two-process random surfaces were measured and analyzed. Changes in parameters caused by the increase in the traverse speed depend on the characteristics and parameters of the surfaces. The random surfaces changed more than the deterministic ones. The increase in the traverse speed from 0.5 to 1 mm/s caused small changes in the parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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16 pages, 11171 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Macro- and Micro-Geometry of Models Made of Photopolymer Resins Using the PolyJet Method

by Paweł Turek, Anna Bazan, Grzegorz Budzik, Tomasz Dziubek and Łukasz Przeszłowski

Materials 2024, 17(17), 4315; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17174315 - 30 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1045

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques are among the fastest-growing technologies for producing even the most geometrically complex models. Unfortunately, the lack of development of metrology guidelines for these methods, related to dimensional and geometry accuracy and surface roughness, significantly limits the commercialization of finished products manufactured using these methods. This paper aims to evaluate the macro- and micro-geometry of models manufactured using the PolyJet method from three types of photopolymer resins: Digital ABS Plus, RGD 720, and Vero Clear. For this purpose, test parts were designed and then manufactured on an Object 350 Connex3 3D printer. The Atos II Triple Scan optical system and the InfiniteFocusG4 microscope were used to evaluate macro- and micro-geometry, respectively. For both systems, measurement procedures were developed to obtain statistical results for evaluating geometric accuracy and surface roughness parameters. In the case of macro-geometry, for Digital ABS Plus and Vero Clear materials, 50% of the central deviations (between first quartile Q1 and third quartile Q3) lie within the range (−0.06, 0.03 mm) and for RGD 720 material within the range (−0.08, 0.01 mm). For micro-geometry, the arithmetic mean height (Sa) values for the Digital ABS Plus and Vero Clear samples were approximately 1.6 and 2.0 µm, respectively, while for RGD 720, it was 15.9 µm. The total roughness height expressed by reduced peak height (Spk) + core height (Sk) + reduced dale depth (Svk) for the Digital ABS Plus and Vero Clear samples was approximately 9.1 and 10.5 µm, respectively, while for the RGD 720, it was 101.9 µm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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19 pages, 15592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Characterization of Metallic Materials in the Case of the Turning Process of NiTi Alloy

by Anna Zawada-Tomkiewicz and Dariusz Tomkiewicz

Materials 2024, 17(2), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020487 - 19 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1036

Abstract

A study was made of the machinability of NiTi alloy in turning, under conditions resulting in a small cutting layer. The experiment involved cutting with variable feeds ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 mm/rev. The cutting conditions were carefully chosen, considering the rounding radius of the cutting edge. The machined surface was examined and measured in 3D using a confocal microscope and in 2D with a contact profilometer. These measurements were used to estimate h_min, leading to the development of a surface formation model that considers both the lateral material flow due to h_min and the lateral material flow due to altered thermodynamic conditions from the previous blade pass. A method for evaluating the surface and selecting its characteristics was proposed based on analyses derived directly from surface features: PCA (Principal Component Analysis) and EMD (Empirical Mode Decomposition) with the Hilbert transform (Hilbert–Huang transform). PCA analysis facilitated the examination of individual surface component variances, while analysis of the IMF components enabled the assessment of surface component energy combined with instantaneous frequencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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16 pages, 6468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micro- and Nano-Roughness Separation Based on Fractal Analysis

by Árpád Czifra and Erzsébet Ancza

Materials 2024, 17(2), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020292 - 6 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1412

Abstract

When describing the tribological behaviour of technical surfaces, the need for full-length scale microtopographic characterization often arises. The self-affine of surfaces and the characterisation of self-affine using a fractal dimension and its implantation into tribological models are commonly used. The goal of our present work was to determine the frequency range of fractal behaviour of surfaces by analysing the microtopographic measurements of an anodised aluminium brake plunger. We also wanted to know if bifractal and multifractal behaviour can be detected in real machine parts. As a result, we developed a new methodology for determining the fractal range boundaries to separate the nano- and micro-roughness. To reach our goals, we used an atomic force microscope (AFM) and a stylus instrument to obtain measurements in a wide frequency range (19 nm–3 mm). Power spectral density (PSD)-based fractal evaluation found that the examined surface could not be characterised by a single fractal dimension. A new method capable of separating nano- and micro-roughness has been developed for investigating multifractal behaviour. The presented procedure separates nano- and micro-roughness based on the geometric characteristics of surfaces. In this way, it becomes possible to specifically examine the relationship between the micro-geometry that can be measured in each wavelength range and the effects of cutting technology and the material structure that creates them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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18 pages, 2758 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Tensile Strength of Adhesive-Bonded Steels Using Surface Treatments

by Péter Kovács, Benjámin Körömi, Zoltán Weltsch and Miklós Berczeli

Materials 2023, 16(24), 7663; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16247663 - 15 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1427

Abstract

This study explores the tensile strength of adhesive joints in steel, focusing on the influence of heat treatment and diverse surface modifications. Results indicate a notable relationship between annealing temperature and tensile strength, with the most favorable outcomes identified at 90 min and 165 °C. Particularly, surfaces treated through turning, sandblasting, and plasma treatment (type C) consistently outperformed other methods. A standout revelation emerged from the turned, sandblasted, and plasma-treated surface (C), showcasing an exceptional tensile strength of 69.06 MPa. Load-holding tests underscored its resilience under diverse load conditions. Surface analyses, including roughness measurements, wetting characteristics, and Scanning Electron Microscope imaging, provided valuable insights into structural transformations induced by different treatments. Chemical composition examinations unveiled significant alterations post-plasma treatment, impacting surface chemistry and contributing to an outstanding tensile strength of 67.63 MPa. In essence, this research offers a glimpse into the nuanced factors influencing adhesive joint strength in steel. The turned, sandblasted, and plasma-treated surface emerges as a promising avenue, sparking further curiosity into the underlying mechanisms propelling superior tensile strength in adhesive joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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14 pages, 10744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Machining Parameters and Tool Reconditioning on Cutting Force, Tool Wear, Surface Roughness and Burr Formation in Nickel-Based Alloy Milling

by Gábor Kónya and Zsolt F. Kovács

Materials 2023, 16(22), 7140; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16227140 - 13 Nov 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

Nickel-based superalloys are among the most difficult materials to machine because they have high thermal strength, they are prone to hardening, carbides severely abrade the tool, and they have very poor thermal conductivity. Slot milling is a specific issue as it is characterized by rapid tool wear and frequent tool breakages. This is why reconditioned tools are frequently employed in industrial environments, as they can considerably decrease the expenses associated with tools. The chosen machining strategy also plays a crucial role in the tool’s lifespan and the quality of the machined surface, making it essential to select the appropriate strategy. Hence, the authors have opted for two conventional trochoidal strategies, namely the circular and swinging toolpath, along with a contemporary toolpath known as the Autodesk Inventor HSM Adaptive strategy. The authors investigated the effects of technological parameters and toolpaths on cutting forces, tool wear, surface roughness and burr formation on machined edges. The results show that lower cutting parameters and adaptive strategies lead to the smallest tool loads, tool wear, the best quality of surface roughness and burr formation on machined edges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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14 pages, 5662 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Geometric Surface Structure and Surface Layer Microhardness of Ti6Al4V Titanium Alloy after Vibratory Shot Peening

by Jakub Matuszak

Materials 2023, 16(21), 6983; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16216983 - 31 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1405

Abstract

This article presents an analysis of the impact of vibratory shot peening on the surface roughness and physical properties of the Ti6Al4V titanium alloy surface layer after milling. The elements of machine parts and structures made of titanium alloys are often exposed to variable loads during operation. Therefore, it is advisable to apply methods that enhance functional properties and increase the durability of interacting components. Increasing the operational durability of such elements can be achieved by vibratory shot peening. Variable amplitudes A = 24; 33; 42; 51; 60 mm and times t = 1; 7; 13; 19; 25 min were applied. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to achieve a threefold reduction in the roughness parameter, Sa = 0.344 µm, compared with milling, Sa = 0.95 µm. An increase in Smr(c) areal material ratio was observed after vibratory shot peening compared with milling. It has been shown that amplitude has a greater impact on the increase in hardening of the surface layer g_h compared with time. The highest rate of change in surface roughness and thickness of the hardened layer was achieved at a vibratory shot-peening time of t = 13 min. The greatest thickness of the hardened layer, exceeding 200 µm, was obtained after shot peening with an amplitude of A = 60 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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19 pages, 7976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Optical and Stylus Methods for Surface Texture Characterisation in Industrial Quality Assurance of Post-Processed Laser Metal Additive Ti-6Al-4V

by Theresa Buchenau, Tobias Mertens, Hubertus Lohner, Hauke Bruening and Marc Amkreutz

Materials 2023, 16(13), 4815; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134815 - 4 Jul 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

Additive manufacturing technologies enable lightweight, functionally integrated designs and development of biomimetic structures. They contribute to the reduction of material waste and decrease in overall process duration. A major challenge for the qualification for aerospace applications is the surface quality. Considering Ti-64 laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) parts, particle agglomerations and resulting re-entrant features are characteristic of the upper surface layer. Wet-chemical post-processing of the components ensures reproducible surface quality for improved fatigue behaviour and application of functional coatings. The 3D SurFin^® and chemical milling treatments result in smoother surface finishes with characteristic properties. In order to characterise these surfaces, three methods for surface texture measurement (contact and non-contact) were applied, namely confocal microscopy, fringe projection and stylus profilometry. The aim of this work was to show their suitability for measurement of laser powder bed fusion as-built and post-processed surfaces and compare results across the evaluated surface conditions. A user-oriented rating of the methods, summarising advantages and disadvantages of the used instruments specifically and the methods in general, is provided. Confocal microscopy reaches the highest resolution amongst the methods, but measurements take a long time. The raw data exhibit large measurement artefacts for as-built and chemically milled conditions, requiring proper data post-processing. The stylus method can only capture 2D profiles and the measurement was restricted by particle agglomerations and craters. However, the method (process and instrument) is entirely standardised and handheld devices are inexpensive, making it accessible for a large group of users. The fringe projection method was the quickest and easiest regarding measurement and data post-processing. Due to large areal coverage, reproduction of location when performing repeat measurements is possible. The spatial resolution is lower than for confocal microscopy but is still considered sufficiently high to characterise the investigated surface conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Surface Topography Measurement, Analysis and Characterization)

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