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Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases

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A special issue of Journal of Clinical Medicine (ISSN 2077-0383). This special issue belongs to the section "Immunology & Rheumatology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2026) | Viewed by 14940

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Prof. Dr. Elena Rezus

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1. Rheumatology Department, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iași, Romania
2. Rheumatology Clinic, Clinical Rehabilitation Hospital, 14 Pantelimon Halipa Street, 700661 Iasi, Romania
Interests: autoimmune diseases; inflammation; cardiovascular risk; atherosclerosis; biological therapy; immunomodulatory therapy; lipid metabolism; cardiovascular risk factors; thrombosis; endothelial dysfunction
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Prof. Dr. Ciprian Rezus

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Department of Medical Specialties I, Faculty of Medicine, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 16 University Street, 700115 Iasi, Romania
Interests: autoimmune diseases; inflammation; cardiovascular risk; atherosclerosis; biological therapy; immunomodulatory therapy; lipid metabolism; cardiovascular risk factors; thrombosis; endothelial dysfunction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease, significantly increase the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and yet the precise mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Chronic inflammation, immune dysregulation, endothelial dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances accelerate atherosclerosis, promote thrombosis, and increase the risk of acute cardiovascular events. However, current early detection, risk stratification, and preventive and therapeutic strategies are suboptimal.

This Special Issue will bridge the gap between autoimmunity and cardiovascular pathology by exploring novel biomarkers, uncovering mechanistic insights, and assessing the impact of immunomodulatory or biological therapy on cardiovascular risks. We invite original research, reviews, and clinical studies focusing on immune-mediated vascular damage, inflammatory pathways, lipid metabolism, thrombosis, and the impact of immunosuppressive therapies on cardiovascular outcomes.

By showcasing work by experts in cardiology, rheumatology, internal medicine, gastroenterology, and immunology, this Special Issue will advance interdisciplinary collaboration, refine risk stratification, and optimize management strategies. We welcome contributions that can enhance our understanding and improve cardiovascular health in patients with autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Prof. Dr. Elena Rezus
Prof. Dr. Ciprian Rezus
Guest Editors

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Keywords

autoimmune diseases
inflammation
cardiovascular risk
atherosclerosis
biological therapy
immunomodulatory therapy
lipid metabolism
cardiovascular risk factors
thrombosis
endothelial dysfunction

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1588 KB

Open AccessArticle

Serum Urate as a Cardiometabolic Risk Enhancer Beyond SCORE2 in Psoriatic Arthritis

by Lilyan C. Charca, Marta Loredo, Estefanía Pardo, Ignacio Braña, Stefanie Burger, Paula Alvarez and Rubén Queiro

J. Clin. Med. 2026, 15(15), 5788; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15155788 - 24 Jul 2026

Viewed by 311

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Cardiovascular risk (CVR) prediction using SCORE2 may incompletely capture the burden of subclinical atherosclerosis in patients with chronic inflammatory conditions. Identifying simple, accessible markers to refine risk stratification remains an unmet need. This study aimed to evaluate whether serum urate improves detection of subclinical atherosclerosis beyond SCORE2 in a psoriatic arthritis cohort. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study including 250 patients with psoriatic arthritis fulfilling CASPAR criteria. Vascular assessment comprised carotid and femoral ultrasound and abdominal radiography. Atherosclerotic plaque was defined according to Mannheim criteria. The main outcomes were global plaque (≥1 vascular territory) and extended plaque (≥2 territories). Multivariable logistic regression adjusted for SCORE2 categories assessed independent associations. Incremental value was evaluated using decision curve analysis (DCA), category-free net reclassification improvement (cfNRI), and integrated discrimination improvement (IDI). Results: Hyperuricemia prevalence was 21.6%. Patients with hyperuricemia showed a higher prevalence of global plaque (88.9% vs. 62.8%, p < 0.001). After adjustment for SCORE2, serum urate was independently associated with global plaque (OR 4.23, 95% CI 1.26–14.2). Notably, 64.3% of patients classified as low–moderate risk already exhibited plaque. In the 50–69-year subgroup, adding serum urate improved reclassification (cfNRI +0.60; IDI +0.031) and was associated with higher net clinical benefit across decision thresholds. The combined model (SCORE2+HU+cIMT) achieved the highest curves, although with limited incremental gain over HU alone. Conclusions: SCORE2 categories showed substantial discordance with imaging-defined subclinical atherosclerotic burden in this population. Serum urate, an inexpensive and widely available marker, may help refine cardiovascular risk stratification and identify patients who could benefit from further vascular assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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18 pages, 814 KB

Open AccessArticle

IL-6 in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: At the Intersection of Disease Activity and Cardiovascular Risk

by Patricia Richter, Ciprian Rezus, Cristina Andreea Adam, Ioana Ruxandra Mihai, Alexandra Maria Burlui and Elena Rezus

J. Clin. Med. 2026, 15(13), 5243; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15135243 - 4 Jul 2026

Viewed by 436

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine implicated in the pathogenesis of SLE. Beyond its role in disease activity, IL-6 has also been associated with increased cardiovascular risk, potentially promoting endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, and thromboinflammation. Our study aimed to investigate the associations between IL-6 levels, disease manifestations, organ damage, cardiovascular comorbidities, and treatment regimens in a cohort of SLE patients. Methods: A total of 88 SLE patients were recruited from the Rheumatology Clinic of the Clinical Rehabilitation Hospital, Iași. Disease activity was assessed using the SLE Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) and irreversible organ damage with the SLICC/ACR Damage Index. Serum IL-6 levels were measured by ELISA. Statistical analyses included Mann–Whitney U tests and Spearman correlation coefficients. Results: Among 88 SLE patients (89.8% female, mean age 51.9 ± 14.8 years), 68.2% presented irreversible organ damage, most frequently cardiovascular (26.1%). Regarding disease manifestations, IL-6 was non-significantly elevated in patients with arthritis, rash, and low complement levels. Serum concentrations also tended to increase with disease severity, being higher in severe compared to moderate activity, and in moderate versus mild activity. Significant associations were found between IL-6 and hypertension (p = 0.027), aortic atherosclerosis (p = 0.034), menopausal status (p = 0.015), and hypercholesterolemia (p = 0.034). No significant differences were observed across treatment subgroups. Conclusions: IL-6 showed limited correlation with SLE clinical activity but was significantly elevated in patients with selected cardiovascular comorbidities. These findings suggest a potential contribution of IL-6 to cardiovascular risk in SLE, warranting further investigation in larger cohorts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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17 pages, 2148 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carotid Atherosclerosis and T-Cell Imbalance in Women with Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Cross-Sectional Study of Intima–Media Thickness, Anti-CCP Antibodies and CD4/CD8 Ratio

by Elena Deseatnicova, Alesea Nistor, Ana Tigulea, Maia Grosu, Stela Dodu, Eugeniu Russu, Lucia Andries and Liliana Groppa

J. Clin. Med. 2026, 15(13), 5054; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15135054 - 29 Jun 2026

Viewed by 379

Abstract

Background: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is associated with increased cardiovascular risk beyond traditional risk factors. Carotid intima–media thickness (IMT) is a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis and may be influenced by chronic inflammation in RA. Objectives: This study aimed to compare carotid IMT between women with RA and age-matched controls, and to investigate the associations between IMT and RA-related factors, including disease duration, menopausal status, anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibodies and the CD4/CD8 T-cell ratio. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 59 women with RA and 55 age-matched controls. All RA patients received methotrexate and had no recent biologic DMARD exposure. Carotid IMT was measured by B-mode ultrasonography. Clinical, laboratory, and immunologic parameters, including anti-CCP antibodies and CD4/CD8 ratio, were analyzed. Results: Mean carotid IMT was significantly higher in RA patients than in controls (0.85 ± 0.09 vs. 0.63 ± 0.08 mm, p < 0.0001). Within the RA group, IMT correlated positively with disease duration (r = 0.48, p < 0.001), years since menopause (ρ = 0.44, p = 0.001), anti-CCP titers (r = 0.31, p = 0.018) and CD4/CD8 ratio (r = 0.42, p < 0.001), and inversely with CD8 T-cell counts (r = −0.34, p = 0.009). In multivariable analysis, RA duration and CD4/CD8 ratio remained independently associated with IMT after adjustment for age, lipids and blood pressure. Conclusions: Women with RA had greater carotid IMT than age-matched controls. Longer disease duration and a higher CD4/CD8 ratio were independently associated with IMT, supporting a link between cumulative disease burden, T-cell imbalance and subclinical carotid atherosclerosis in RA. These findings support routine cardiovascular risk assessment and consideration of vascular imaging in high-risk RA subgroups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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12 pages, 541 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Insulin Resistance and Preclinical Atherosclerosis Parameters in Long-Term Prediction of Cardiovascular Events: A Seven-Year Prospective Study

by Daniela Di Lisi, Girolamo Manno, Cristina Madaudo, Francesco Perone, Francesco Leonforte, Antonio Luca Maria Parlati, Andrea Flex, Salvatore Novo, Paolo Tondi, Alfredo Ruggero Galassi and Giuseppina Novo

J. Clin. Med. 2026, 15(2), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15020808 - 19 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Cardiovascular (CV) and cerebrovascular diseases, primarily attributed to atherosclerosis, stand as leading global causes of morbidity and mortality. This study aims to evaluate the impact of preclinical atherosclerosis parameters, including intima-media thickness (IMT) and arterial stiffness, in a seven-year follow-up of 100 patients with CV risk factors but no known history of CV or cerebrovascular diseases. Methods: Between April 2014 and December 2015, 100 patients presenting with suspected ischemic heart disease were enrolled. The study integrates the color Doppler examination of the supra-aortic trunks with the evaluation of preclinical parameters of atherosclerosis, such as intima-media thickness (IMT), βeta index, and pulse wave velocity (PWV), as well as echocardiographic evaluations, including global longitudinal strain (GLS). CV risk factors, metabolic syndrome, and insulin resistance were assessed and measured for each patient using the Homeostasis Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR). Two- and seven-year follow-ups assessed various CV events. Results: The study population comprised 67% males and 33% females. Metabolic syndrome, impaired fasting glycemia and hypertension were prevalent. The mean value of IMT was 1.21 ± 0.26 mm, and PWV was 8.47 ± 2.14 m/s. The 7-year follow-up identified IMT, PWV, and HOMA-IR as strong positive predictors of cardiovascular events, with PWV emerging as a particularly sensitive indicator of early events. Conclusions: Insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk factors may contribute to early alterations in myocardial and vascular function, even in the absence of overt disease. PWV, as a recognized surrogate marker of arterial stiffness, may serve as a sensitive tool for the early prediction of cardiovascular events. A comprehensive screening, including the assessment of markers indicating subclinical vascular alterations, along with the implementation of preventive interventions, is crucial for populations at risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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13 pages, 540 KB

Open AccessArticle

Involvement of Iliofemoral Arteries in PET/CT Is Associated with Atherosclerotic Risk Factors in Takayasu’s Arteritis

by Sema Kaymaz-Tahra, Salih Ozguven, Aysegul Avcu, Nuh Filizoglu, Ali Ugur Unal, Tunc Ones, Tanju Yusuf Erdil, Fatma Alibaz-Oner and Haner Direskeneli

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(23), 8607; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14238607 - 4 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 859

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Takayasu’s arteritis (TAK) is an inflammatory vascular disease, but atherosclerotic mechanisms may also contribute to vascular injury in TAK. This study aimed to evaluate the clinical and imaging characteristics of TAK patients with and without iliofemoral artery involvement on FDG-PET/CT, focusing on the association with classical atherosclerotic risk factors. Methods: Patients fulfilling the 1990 ACR classification criteria for TAK who underwent FDG-PET/CT imaging during follow-up were retrospectively analyzed. Demographic, clinical, and laboratory data were recorded, including traditional cardiovascular risk factors: diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking, obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m²), and family history of cardiovascular disease. PET vascular activity score (PETVAS) and visual analysis were used to assess vascular inflammation. Results: PET/CT scans of 77 TAK patients (F/M = 63/14) were evaluated. The mean age was 43.0 ± 12.9 years, and the mean disease duration was 120.1 ± 88.8 months. Iliofemoral artery involvement was observed in nine (12%) patients. Compared to those without such involvement, these patients were older (52.5 ± 17.4 vs. 41.3 ± 12.1 years, p = 0.098), more frequently male (44% vs. 6%, p = 0.015), and had higher CRP levels (38.5 mg/L vs. 10.7 mg/L, p = 0.026). Smoking (77% vs. 40%, p = 0.045) and chronic kidney disease (22% vs. 4%, p = 0.046) were also more prevalent. PET activity according to visual analysis was higher among those with iliofemoral involvement (67% vs. 27%, p = 0.015). In multivariate analysis, older age (OR = 1.07, p = 0.044) and male sex (OR = 6.68, p = 0.039) were independently associated with iliofemoral artery involvement. Conclusions: Iliofemoral artery involvement on PET/CT in TAK patients was associated with traditional atherosclerotic risk factors—particularly older age, male sex and smoking. These findings suggest that atherosclerotic mechanisms may coexist with or amplify vascular inflammation in TAK. Aggressive management of cardiovascular risk factors should therefore be emphasized in this subgroup of TAK patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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11 pages, 620 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Colchicine Therapy on Ventriculoarterial Coupling in Familial Mediterranean Fever: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Hakan Duman, Hüseyin Durak, Osman Cüre, Mustafa Çetin, Ali Gökhan Özyıldız, Elif Ergül, Müjgan Ayşenur Şahin, Ahmet Özsipahi, Ahmet Yasin Tuncer, Barış Dindar and Nadir Emlek

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(19), 6902; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14196902 - 29 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Background: Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF) is a chronic autoinflammatory disorder that is characterized by increased arterial stiffness and subtle cardiovascular dysfunction. Colchicine remains the mainstay of treatment and may provide vascular benefits that extend beyond its anti-inflammatory effects. However, the association between colchicine therapy and ventriculoarterial coupling (VAC), a hemodynamic marker of cardiovascular efficiency, has not been previously studied. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 97 patients with FMF receiving colchicine therapy for at least one year and 81 colchicine-naive individuals without FMF were consecutively enrolled from a tertiary rheumatology outpatient clinic. The VAC was evaluated using the Chen method, calculated as the ratio of arterial elastance (Ea) to end-systolic elastance (Es), based on echocardiographic measurements and noninvasive brachial blood pressure. Correlation analyses and stepwise multivariate linear regression analyses were performed to identify independent predictors of VAC. Results: Patients with FMF demonstrated significantly lower VAC values compared to controls (1.23 ± 0.34 vs. 1.40 ± 0.57; p = 0.001). The colchicine dose was inversely correlated with VAC (r = −0.243; p = 0.001) and remained an independent predictor in multivariate analysis (β = −0.186, p = 0.018). Beta-blocker use was positively associated with VAC (β = 0.194, p = 0.014), whereas female sex showed a borderline inverse association. Conclusions: Colchicine use in patients with FMF was associated with more favorable VAC in a dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that colchicine may exert cardiovascular effects beyond the control of inflammation. VAC may be a useful noninvasive marker for assessing vascular–ventricular interactions in FMF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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15 pages, 740 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Janus Kinase Inhibitors on Cardio-Vascular Risk in Rheumatic Diseases: A Prospective Pilot Study

by Diana Popescu, Minerva Codruta Badescu, Elena Rezus, Daniela Maria Tanase, Anca Ouatu, Nicoleta Dima, Oana-Nicoleta Buliga-Finis, Evelina Maria Gosav and Ciprian Rezus

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(13), 4676; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14134676 - 2 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2149

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) exhibit increased cardiovascular risk, partly attributed to persistent systemic inflammation. Janus kinase inhibitors (JAKi) effectively reduce inflammation, but their impact on cardiovascular risk remains unclear. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the effect of JAKi therapy on systemic inflammation and lipid markers, correlate traditional cardiovascular risk factors with biological parameters, and quantify subclinical atherosclerosis progression. Methods: We conducted a prospective, single-center study including 48 patients receiving JAKi. Clinical, inflammatory, lipid, and vascular parameters were assessed at baseline (T0) and after 12 months (T1). Primary endpoints included changes in carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT), ankle-brachial index (ABI), and carotid plaque presence. Results: Mean cIMT significantly decreased from 0.29 mm to 0.125 mm (p = 0.019), while ABI improved modestly, but not significantly (0.125 to 0.04, p = 0.103). Carotid plaque prevalence increased slightly from 39.6% to 47.9%, p = 0.159. C-reactive protein (CRP) levels declined significantly, while interleukin (IL)-1β levels increased. Lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] levels decreased significantly (mean reduction −7.96 mmol/L, p = 0.001). Multivariate regression identified Lp(a) as an independent predictor of carotid plaque at both T0 (p = 0.011) and T1 (p = 0.005). Baseline ABI was a significant predictor of acute cardiovascular events [hazard ratio (HR): 4.614, 95% CI: 1.034–20.596, p = 0.045]. Conclusions: JAKi therapy significantly reduced systemic inflammation and cIMT in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases, suggesting a potential benefit in attenuating early vascular changes. However, residual cardiovascular risk remains in patients with low ABI and elevated Lp(a), warranting close monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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18 pages, 2768 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Efficacy and Safety of Lipid-Lowering Treatment and Its Importance in Risk Assessment and Prevention in a Hungarian Myositis Cohort

by Dorottya Szinay, Katalin Szabó, Henrik Molnár, Tibor Béldi, Viktor Bencs, Hajnalka Lőrincz, Mariann Harangi, Zoltán Griger and Melinda Nagy-Vincze

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(10), 3404; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14103404 - 13 May 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2381

Abstract

Background: Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIMs), also known as myositis, are systemic autoimmune diseases characterized by chronic inflammation affecting the skin, muscles, and internal organs. Besides traditional risk factors and immune-mediated myocarditis, continuous activity of the immune system increases cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, meaning that cardiovascular events are the leading causes of mortality in IIM patients. Statins are the most widely used lipid-lowering therapies, which reduce cardiovascular risk, but the fear of adverse muscular events inhibits the frequency of use. Methods: Our aim was to assess the CVD risk in a myositis cohort using the SCORE2 prediction system, carotid artery Doppler ultrasound measurement, and biomarkers; recommend individual lipid-lowering treatment; and follow the efficacy and adverse events of therapy in a 6-month treatment period. Results: The study population (80 IIM patients) was a middle-aged, female-dominant myositis cohort with an average disease duration of 9 years and low median global disease activity. Based on the SCORE2 evaluation, 78.8% of patients had medium/high CVD risk, while 73.13% had asymptomatic carotid plaque. After 6 months of adequate lipid-lowering therapy, 37.5% of patients reached a lower CVD risk category, the biomarker levels of atherosclerosis significantly decreased, and no progression in carotid plaques was detected. None of the patients reported an adverse muscular event or IIM relapse. Conclusions: Our findings proved that the CVD risk of patients with myositis is high, but carefully applied lipid-lowering treatment is the key to effective risk reduction. Risk stratification and the recommendation of preventive treatment are the responsibility of the treating physician. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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Review

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33 pages, 860 KB

Open AccessReview

Cardiovascular Risk Assessment in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis

by Ruxandra Oiegar and Dana Pop

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(18), 6461; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14186461 - 13 Sep 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4125

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by inflammation of the synovium. The inflammation accelerates the development and progression of atherosclerosis, a key phenomenon in the onset of cardiovascular diseases. The aim of this review was to synthetize the traditional and RA-specific cardiovascular risk (CVR) factors and the CVR assessment guidelines in RA patients. Methods: We performed a PubMed search using specific keywords. We synthetized the main findings. Results: Although the risk factors are the traditional ones, with certain particularities, the mechanisms that lead to cardiovascular disease are distinguished. In RA, the “lipid paradox” occurs: low levels of total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol, and high levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol. Despite this phenomenon, patients have an elevated risk of cardiovascular events. This is due to inflammation, which increases cholesterol catabolism and interferes with the anti-oxidant properties of HDL-cholesterol. There is a significant association between serum C-reactive protein (CRP) value and cardiovascular risk: each 20 mg/L increase in CRP causes a 1% increase in cardiovascular risk. The evaluation of the CVR through standard matrices undervalues the risk in patients with RA. Various approaches have been suggested to improve the accuracy of cardiovascular risk appraisal: from multiplying standard scores, including specific biomarkers, to modifying the impact of certain parameters in risk calculation. Conclusions: RA inflammatory and autoimmune mechanisms increase the cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in this group of patients. Therefore, this category of patients requires a proper cardiovascular (CV) evaluation. Carotid ultrasound ensures a better classification of RA patients, especially women, in the cardiovascular risk categories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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17 pages, 1110 KB

Open AccessReview

Combining Laboratory and Imaging Evaluation for Cardiovascular Risk Stratification in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

by Chrysanthi Staveri, Vassiliki Vartela, Sophie I. Mavrogeni and Stamatis-Nick C. Liossis

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(14), 5085; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14145085 - 17 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1856

Abstract

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem auto-immune disease that may affect any organ/system, including the cardiovascular system. Several studies have shown that SLE is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), even though most of the patients who have lupus are young women. In this review, we present that apart from the traditional risk factors, there are more appropriate SLE-related indices such as imaging parameters, auto-antibodies, disease manifestations, medications, and genetic factors that might represent useful tools to create an algorithm for early identification of SLE patients at increased risk of CVD. Early recognition and appropriate treatment of patients at increased CVD risk might reduce morbidity/mortality and improve the quality of life of patients with SLE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cardiovascular Risks in Autoimmune and Inflammatory Diseases)

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