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Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition

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A special issue of Insects (ISSN 2075-4450). This special issue belongs to the section "Medical and Livestock Entomology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 13326

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Dr. Athanasios Giatropoulos

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Laboratory of Efficacy Control of Pesticides, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 8 St. Delta str., 14561 Kifissia, Attica, Greece
Interests: mosquitoes; mosquito surveillance; mosquito bio-ecology; competitive interactions; natural products; essential oils; insecticides; repellents
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Dear Colleagues,

Mosquitoes pose a serious threat to human and animal health, as vectors of many major diseases, such as malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, yellow fever, encephalitis and filariasis. Climate warming, urbanization, and increased global travel and trade have raised the geographical spread of invasive mosquito species and associated mosquito-borne diseases. Hence, the successful management of mosquitoes requires not only an integrated mosquito management strategy, in which all appropriate methods for control are used, but also knowledge of the biology and ecology of the target organisms.

After the success of the earlier Special Issue “Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals”, we are pleased to launch a Second Edition of this Special Issue, and we welcome submissions of laboratory and field studies on mosquito bio-ecology, including the life-cycle characteristics, competitive interactions and distribution of mosquito species, as well as integrated mosquito management tools, including surveillance methods, insecticides, repellents, attractants, botanicals, microbials, biological control agents, nanotechnology, sterile insect techniques and insecticide resistance management. Research areas may include, but are not limited to, the following: medical and veterinary entomology, applied entomology, parasitology, mosquito bio-ecology and mosquito control.

Dr. Athanasios Giatropoulos
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Insects is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

mosquito bio-ecology
competition
mosquito surveillance
mosquito control
insecticides
repellents
insecticide resistance

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 1214 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gravid Anopheles stephensi Detects Indole for Oviposition Despite the Ablation of Antennae and Maxillary Palps

by John Agbetsi and Jiannong Xu

Insects 2026, 17(4), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17040377 - 1 Apr 2026

Viewed by 454

Abstract

Oviposition site selection is critical for mosquito population dynamics. Gravid mosquitoes rely on chemical cues to identify suitable breeding habitats. However, the sensory mechanisms governing this behavior in Anopheles stephensi remain poorly understood. Here, we examined the role of indole, a microbial volatile associated with aquatic environments, in oviposition site choice and assessed the involvement of sensory organs in its detection. In two-choice oviposition assays, water conditioned with first-instar larvae attracted gravid females (OAI = 0.56). In contrast, water from fourth-instar larvae was repellent (OAI = −0.20), consistent with avoidance of suboptimal, resource-depleted habitats. Single indole cue elicited strong oviposition attraction across a broad concentration range (0.5–50 µM), with no clear dose–response relationship. Surgical ablation of antennae and maxillary palps did not abolish indole-mediated preference but significantly reduced behavioral variability, suggesting that these structures modulate, rather than solely mediate, indole detection. Reanalysis of transcriptomes of antennae, maxillary palps, and legs in An. gambiae and An. coluzzii, along with quantitative RT-PCR in An. stephensi revealed the expression of chemosensory genes (including Obp1, Obp13, Obp25, Obp71, Or2, and Or10) in the legs, suggesting a potential role for leg chemosensation in oviposition decisions. These findings underscore the complexity of chemoperception in mosquito habitat assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 840 KB

Open AccessArticle

Screening and Comparative Efficacy of Indigenous Entomopathogenic Fungi from Forest Ecosystems Against Culex pipiens Biotype molestus Larvae: Identification of High-Virulence Isolates for Biocontrol Applications

by Spyridon Mantzoukas, Chrysanthi Zarmakoupi, Ioannis Lagogiannis and Panagiotis A. Eliopoulos

Insects 2026, 17(4), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17040361 - 25 Mar 2026

Viewed by 524

Abstract

The management of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae), key vectors of arboviruses like West Nile virus, necessitates sustainable alternatives to chemical insecticides. This study screened indigenous entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) from forest soils in Achaia, Greece, for their larvicidal efficacy against Cx. pipiens biotype molestus. Fifteen fungal isolates were obtained via insect baiting and identified as Beauveria and Metarhizium species. A comprehensive bioassay at 1 × 10⁸ conidia mL⁻¹ revealed significant variation in pathogenicity after 72 h. Two isolates, Beauveria bassiana (BB) (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) and Metarhizium anisopliae (K3(1)) (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae), exhibited the highest virulence among the tested isolates, each causing 60% mortality with a rapid median lethal time (LT₅₀) of ~18.5 h. Survival analysis, Cox modeling, and non-linear kinetic modeling (Gompertz/Richards) classified three distinct virulence clusters: high/rapid, moderate/consistent, and low/delayed. A pathogenicity network analysis and a composite virulence index further validated BB and K3(1) as the most effective candidates. These results demonstrate the high isolate specificity of fungal efficacy and underscore the importance of screening local fungal diversity. The identified high-virulence isolates represent promising, environmentally sound candidates for the development of targeted biopesticides. Future research should focus on formulation for aquatic environments and integration into resistance-resilient integrated vector management programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 4319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Host Usage in Aedes aegypti from Houston, Texas, and Phoenix, Arizona, Using Third-Generation Sequencing Blood Meal Analysis

by Brittani A. Ciomperlik, Edwin R. Burgess IV, Neil D. Sanscrainte, Mba-Tihssommah Mosore, John Townsend, James B. Will, Nicole Busser and Alden S. Estep

Insects 2026, 17(2), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020175 - 5 Feb 2026

Viewed by 764

Abstract

The ecology and establishment of Aedes aegypti in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate areas makes them one of the most medically relevant mosquito species. While they have been reported to be highly anthropophilic, several studies indicate a broader host range. They also reportedly take multiple blood meals between gonotrophic cycles, which makes determination of host usage difficult when using common blood meal analysis methods. In this study, we examined host usage of Ae. aegypti in Harris County, Texas (Houston), and Maricopa County, Arizona (Phoenix), using a nanopore-based third-generation sequencing protocol to resolve host usage and multiplicity. Using this method, approximately 80% of samples from each location with evidence of blood feeding resulted in blood meal identification, with a single host blood meal identified in about 80% of samples and approximately 20% containing evidence of multiple blood meals. Overall, we observed a wide host range with human DNA being the most prevalent followed by feline (Felis catus) and canine (Canis lupus). We also identified avian, rodent, ungulate and even ectotherm usage by Ae. aegypti from Maricopa County. This study demonstrates the utility of a third-generation sequencing method to identify less common hosts, like ectotherms in Arizona, and to resolve multiple feedings which remain difficult to resolve by current Sanger-based methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 1008 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sublethal Pyriproxyfen Exposure Alters Anopheles arabiensis Fitness and Pyrethroid Susceptibility Without Trans-Generational Carry-Over

by Simoni Twaha Mnzava, Augustino Thabiti Mmbaga, Anitha Mutashobya, Letus Laurian Muyaga, Mwema Felix Mwema, Halfan Ngowo and Dickson Wilson Lwetoijera

Insects 2026, 17(2), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17020166 - 2 Feb 2026

Viewed by 756

Abstract

Background: Pyriproxyfen (PPF), a juvenile hormone analog, is a promising chemical for autodissemination strategies, where mosquitoes aid in transferring insecticides to their breeding sites. This study evaluated the effects of sublethal PPF doses on Anopheles arabiensis fitness (fecundity, fertility, and body size) and pyrethroids susceptibility across three generations. Methods: Laboratory-reared, pyrethroid-resistant mosquito larvae were exposed once to sublethal PPF concentrations of (0.0003, 0.0006, 0.0008, and 0.001 mg a.i./L), which caused emergence inhibition rates of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, respectively, alongside a control group. Emerged adults were tested for susceptibility to 0.75% permethrin, 3.75% permethrin, and 0.05% deltamethrin using WHO tube bioassays. Knockdown was recorded at 1 h, mortality at 24 h post-exposure, while fecundity, fertility, and body size were measured across three generations. Results: First-generation Anopheles arabiensis emerging from PPF-treated larvae showed reduced susceptibility to 0.75% permethrin and 0.05% deltamethrin compared to controls. Mortality from permethrin dropped from 22.7% in the controls to 11% and then 3% at 0.0003 and 0.001 mg a.i./L. For deltamethrin, mortality fell from 62.7% to 36% and then 23.3% at the same concentrations. Knockdown at 60 min was also significantly reduced, with permethrin KDT₆₀ dropping from 41.3% in controls to 9.3% and 3.3%, and deltamethrin KDT₆₀ from 79.7% to 66.7% and 65%. No significant differences were observed in subsequent generations (p > 0.05). PPF exposure also induced notable fitness costs in the first generation: mean wing length decreased from 3.07 mm in controls to 2.88–2.66 mm (6–13% reduction), mean egg production dropped from 30.1 to 13.9–18.8 eggs per female (37–54% reduction), and egg hatching rate declined from 87% to 79–82% (6–9% reduction). Conclusions: These findings suggest that sublethal PPF doses can temporarily enhance insecticide resistance without leading to heritable resistance and negatively impact key mosquito fitness traits. PPF may thus be a valuable addition to integrated vector management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 4704 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring the Capacity of Microsporidia MB Transgenerational Spread in Anopheles arabiensis Populations

by Godfred Yaw Boanyah, Lizette L. Koekemoer, Jeremy K. Herren and Tullu Bukhari

Insects 2025, 16(12), 1206; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16121206 - 27 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1446

Abstract

Microsporidia MB is a natural symbiont of Anopheles arabiensis Patton, 1905 that blocks Plasmodium transmission without compromising mosquito fitness. Developing this symbiont for malaria control requires a thorough understanding of its transmission dynamics across generations under environmentally relevant conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the transgenerational spread of Microsporidia MB in semi-field settings. From field-collected infected females (G0), several independent replicates of Microsporidia MB-infected An. arabiensis were established and maintained under semi-field conditions for six generations (F1–F6). All the mosquitoes were screened for Microsporidia MB prevalence and infection intensity using qPCR after death. Temperature and humidity and wing size were recorded. Two replicates sustained through F6. Microsporidia MB prevalence and intensity increased from F1 to F3–F4 before declining. A weak positive correlation was observed between prevalence and temperature, but not humidity. Female mosquitoes exhibited higher infection intensities. Female wing size varied across generations, while male size remained consistent. This first study on Microsporidia MB transgenerational transmission under semi-field conditions revealed a pattern of initial increase followed by decline in prevalence and intensity. The stability of male size supports the potential use of infected males in release programs. These findings underscore additional investigations into environmental drivers for mosquito symbiont prevalence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 3025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High Larval Density on Wing Shape Deformations of Culex pipiens (Culicidae: Diptera) via Geometric Morphometrics

by Seçil Aytekin, Zafer Sakaci, Sengul Talay and Bulent Alten

Insects 2025, 16(12), 1185; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16121185 - 21 Nov 2025

Viewed by 974

Abstract

Populations of Culex pipiens, which is considered a primary vector of West Nile Virus, are not uniformly shaped, and hence, they are difficult to work on, not only because of the complex structure of the species but also due to the possible deformations caused by several factors like temperature, pH, parasite, and bacterial density. Larval density is another crucial factor. This study summarizes the effects of larval density in Cx. pipiens as a model of experimental semi-controlled ecomorphs by two different geometric morphometrics methods. The landmark-based method explains that dimorphism is clearly visualized in both the size and shape of the wings. It also shows that females and males have gradually traceable deformations. When the population reaches a high larval density, which is calculated as approximately 0.5 cm³/individual or, in other words, 1 larva/mL in Cx. pipiens, it can be considered a breaking point, where deformations in shape are observed through all study periods, indicating that it is effected separately and varies independently from the other factors. The wings become smaller in both sexes as the larval density increases. Similar results are obtained by Elliptic Fourier Analysis, which explains the difference in the contour of the wing, regardless of where the landmarks on the veins are located. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 2670 KB

Open AccessArticle

Liu-pao Tea as a Source of Botanical Oviposition Attractants for Aedes Mosquitoes

by Li-Hua Xie, Tong Liu, Wen-Qiang Yang, Yu-Gu Xie, Si-Yu Zhao and Xiao-Guang Chen

Insects 2025, 16(10), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16101065 - 17 Oct 2025

Viewed by 927

Abstract

Oviposition attractants can enhance both the surveillance and control of container-breeding Aedes mosquitoes. Although green tea has been reported to attract Ae. aegypti, the specific bioactive botanical compounds responsible remain unidentified. We evaluated teas across fermentation stages (non-fermented, fully fermented, and post-fermented) at 5 g/L for gravid Ae. albopictus using dual-choice assays. The most attractive tea (Liu-pao) was further tested across concentrations (0.5–5 g/L) and infusion ages (1–28 days). Autoclaved vs. non-autoclaved infusions assessed microbial contributions, while headspace volatiles were analyzed via HS-SPME-GC-MS. Individual compounds (cedrol and linalool oxide) were bioassayed. Only Liu-pao tea consistently attracted Ae. albopictus (OAI ≥ 0.3), peaking at 5 g/L after 7–14 days (OAIs 0.73/0.67). A 0.5 g/L infusion aged 21–28 days also attracted Ae. aegypti (OAIs 0.89/0.63). Autoclaving did not reduce attraction, confirming volatile compounds, not live microbe-mediated effects. Cedrol (1 mg/L) elicited moderate attraction (OAI 0.29) in Ae. albopictus, while linalool oxide was inactive. Post-fermented Liu-pao tea acts as a potent botanical attractant for Aedes mosquitoes. Cedrol contributes partially, but whole tea infusions outperform single compounds. These findings support developing multi-volatile “attract-and-kill” strategies targeting gravid mosquitoes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 2101 KB

Open AccessArticle

Culicidae Fauna (Diptera: Culicomorpha) of the Municipality of Mazagão, Amapá, in the Brazilian Amazon

by Rafael Espíndola do Nascimento, Daniel Damous Dias, Bruna Lais Sena do Nascimento, Tiago Silva da Costa, Raimundo Nonato Picanço Souto, Livia Medeiros Neves Casseb, Joaquim Pinto Nunes Neto and Valeria Lima Carvalho

Insects 2025, 16(10), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16101036 - 9 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1430

Abstract

The Amazon hosts one of the richest diversities of mosquitoes in the family Culicidae, which are key both as arbovirus vectors and as environmental bioindicators. However, the state of Amapá remains poorly studied regarding its mosquito fauna. This study aimed to characterize the diversity and seasonal composition of Culicidae in the municipality of Mazagão, Eastern Amazon, within a rural landscape influenced by human activity and extreme climatic events. Three sampling campaigns were conducted between 2023 and 2024, covering rainy, intermediary, and dry periods. Mosquitoes were collected using Protected Human Attraction (PHA) and CDC light traps at both ground and canopy strata. A total of 3500 specimens were obtained, representing 38 species across 15 genera. The intermediary period yielded the highest abundance and richness, whereas the dry season presented very low diversity, probably because of severe drought and forest fires. Dominant species included Coquillettidia (Rhy.) venezuelensis, Cq. albicosta, and Mansonia titillans. There were significant differences in community diversity between dry and wetter periods, underscoring the strong role of seasonality in shaping mosquito populations. These findings represent the entomofaunistic survey of the region, contributing to biodiversity knowledge and highlighting potential public health risks, thus reinforcing the need for continuous entomological monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 7293 KB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution of Larval Habitats and Efficiency of Various Trap Settings to Monitor Sympatric Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti in La Reunion

by Caroline Vitry, Ronan Brouazin, Anthony Herbin, Mathieu Whiteside, Cécile Brengues, Thierry Baldet, Renaud Lancelot and Jérémy Bouyer

Insects 2025, 16(9), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16090932 - 4 Sep 2025

Viewed by 1368

Abstract

To prepare for a boosted sterile insect technique (SIT) field trial in Saint-Joseph, Reunion island, we compared the attractiveness of two adult mosquito traps for Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti. In addition, we explored the co-occurrence of these species in their usual larval habitats. Two traps were compared with two conditions each using a Latin square design: BG Sentinel trap baited with carbon dioxide (CO₂) with/without addition of BG Lure and ovi-sticky trap with/without hay. The ovi-sticky traps proved ineffective. For both Aedes species, CO₂-baited traps were equally effective at catching females when baited with the lure or not. In contrast, they were more attractive to males than for females with the lure. Aedes aegypti larvae were found in four of six vacoas (Pandanus utilis), and one of four anthropogenic breeding sites. In vacoas, the densities of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti larvae were negatively correlated, whereas the correlation was positive between chironomids and Aedes aegypti. The abundance of adults and larvae varied according to weather conditions. Finally, CO₂-baited traps were used without lure for the entomological monitoring to assess the effectiveness of the area-wide boosted SIT intervention to reduce costs and logistics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 3651 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Citizen Science and Field Sampling into Next-Generation Early-Warning Systems for Vector Surveillance: Twenty Years of Municipal Detections of Aedes Invasive Mosquito Species in Spain

by Roger Eritja, Isis Sanpera-Calbet, Sarah Delacour-Estrella, Ignacio Ruiz-Arrondo, Maria Àngels Puig, Mikel Bengoa-Paulís, Pedro María Alarcón-Elbal, Carlos Barceló, Simone Mariani, Yasmina Martínez-Barciela, Daniel Bravo-Barriga, Alejandro Polina, José Manuel Pereira-Martínez, Mikel Alexander González, Santi Escartin, Rosario Melero-Alcíbar, Laura Blanco-Sierra, Sergio Magallanes, Francisco Collantes, Martina Ferraguti, María Isabel González-Pérez, Rafael Gutiérrez-López, María Isabel Silva-Torres, Olatz San Sebastián-Mendoza, María Cruz Calvo-Reyes, Marian Mendoza-García, David Macías-Magro, Pilar Cisneros, Aitor Cevidanes, Eva Frontera, Inés Mato, Fernando Fúster-Lorán, Miguel Domench-Guembe, María Elena Rodríguez-Regadera, Ricard Casanovas-Urgell, Tomás Montalvo, Miguel Ángel Miranda, Jordi Figuerola, Javier Lucientes-Curdi, Joan Garriga, John Rossman Bertholf Palmer and Frederic Bartumeus Show full author list Hide full author list

Insects 2025, 16(9), 904; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16090904 - 29 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3503

Abstract

The spread of the invasive mosquitoes Aedes albopictus, Aedes aegypti, and Aedes japonicus in Spain represents an increasing public health risk due to their capacity to transmit arboviruses such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya, among others. Traditional field entomological surveillance remains essential for tracking their spread, but it faces limitations in terms of cost, scalability, and labor intensity. Since 2014, the Mosquito Alert citizen-science project has enabled public participation in surveillance through the submission of geolocated images via a mobile app, which are identified using AI in combination with expert validation. While field surveillance provides high accuracy, citizen science offers low-cost, large-scale, real-time data collection aligned with open data management principles. It is particularly useful for detecting long-distance dispersal events and has contributed up to one-third of the municipal detections of invasive mosquito species since 2014. This study assesses the value of integrating both surveillance systems to capitalize on their complementary strengths while compensating for their weaknesses in the areas of taxonomic accuracy, scalability, spatial detection patterns, data curation and validation systems, geographic precision, interoperability, and real-time output. We present the listing of municipal detections of these species from 2004 to 2024, integrating data from both sources. Spain’s integrated approach demonstrates a pioneering model for cost-effective, scalable vector surveillance tailored to the dynamics of invasive species and emerging epidemiological threats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biology, Ecology and Management of Mosquitoes Affecting Humans and Animals—2nd Edition)

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