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Molecular Insight into the Processing and Characterization of Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 September 2025) | Viewed by 11589

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Prof. Dr. Pavel Mokrejš

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Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Technology, Tomas Bata University in Zlín, Vavrečkova 275, 760 01 Zlín, Czech Republic
Interests: biotechnological processing of poultry and fish by-products; processing of animal by-product fats; enzyme hydrolysis of fats; lipid-based systems in cosmetic matrices; preparation of gelatins and hydrolysates; food and cosmetics applications of gelatins and hydrolysates; collagen-based edible packaging materials; processing of collagen and keratin by-products
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Dear Colleagues,

Animal fats and vegetable oils belong to the portfolio of important raw materials not only for the food industry, but are also used in non-food sectors such as the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and leather industries. A significant share is represented by fats and their wastes originating from untraditional animal fats and vegetable oils, including by-products. Current trends in the processing of raw materials significantly point towards compliance with the principles of the circular economy with respect to the environment. Therefore, research should be strategically oriented towards the innovation of methods, and above all, a deeper examination of the processing conditions. Special attention can be paid, for example, to the preparation of fatty acids by alkali and acid hydrolysis, using specific and nonspecific lipases, or the interesterification of fats. Obtained lipid-based systems can be used, for example, to prepare advanced carriers, which can alternatively be functionalized using unique active substances, usable in cosmetic matrices, membranes or films for medical applications or food packaging.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to provide a representative and up-to-date overview of nutritional and molecular research on fats, processing of fats, oils and their wastes aimed at the preparation of products for common and advanced applications. The research focusing on the impact of fats and fatty acids on heart diseases, cancer or intestinal diseases, as well as the potential of omega-3 fatty acids in medical therapies are welcomed. Authors are encouraged to publish results on the preparation of second-generation biofuels as well.

Prof. Dr. Pavel Mokrejš
Guest Editor

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Keywords

lipid molecules
oils
fats
lipase
interesterification
hydrolysis
phospholipids
fatty acids
molecular research
nutrition
cosmetics matrices
medical applications
food
pharmacy
bioengineering
novel applications
biofuels

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 1595 KB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time FTIR-ATR Spectroscopy for Monitoring Ethanolysis: Spectral Evaluation, Regression Modelling, and Molecular Insight

by Jakub Husar, Lubomir Sanek and Jiri Pecha

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(19), 9381; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26199381 - 25 Sep 2025

Abstract

As the demand for biodiesel continues to rise, there is a pressing need for efficient and continuous monitoring of the transesterification reaction at the industrial level. However, there is a lack of straightforward online monitoring methods capable of accurately following the course of ethanolysis under various reaction conditions. In this work, simple linear regression (SLR) and multiple linear regression (MLR) models were developed to assess Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) data from a continuous flow cell, enabling real-time ethanolysis monitoring without sample pretreatment. Gas chromatography (GC) was utilised as the reference method to accurately characterise the reaction mixture’s composition during ethanolysis. Extensive correlation analysis was performed to identify spectra regions where the reaction system’s state changes are observable. The gained regions were subsequently applied in the linear regression model’s development. This novel approach resulted in the performance of simple linear regression comparable to complex partial least squares (PLS) regression model (RMSEP = 2.11). The developed online monitoring system was validated in a wide range of reaction conditions (40–60 °C; 0.25–1.0% w/w NaOH); it effectively identifies dynamic changes in the ethanolysis process and confirms achieving the threshold value of ester content set by EU regulation directly in the production process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Insight into the Processing and Characterization of Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils)

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12 pages, 4348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low Testosterone and High Leptin Activate PPAR Signaling to Induce Adipogenesis and Promote Fat Deposition in Caponized Ganders

by Mingming Lei, Yaxin Li, Jiaying Li, Jie Liu, Zichun Dai, Rong Chen and Huanxi Zhu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(16), 8686; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168686 - 9 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1529

Abstract

Low or insufficient testosterone levels caused by caponization promote fat deposition in animals. However, the molecular mechanism of fat deposition in caponized animals remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the metabolomics and transcriptomic profiles of adipose tissues and study the effect of testosterone and leptin on the proliferation of adipocytes. We observed a significant enlargement in the areas of adipocytes in the abdominal fat tissues in capon, as well as increased luciferase activity of the serum leptin and a sharp decrease in the serum testosterone in caponized gander. Metabolomics and transcriptomic results revealed differentially expressed genes and differentially expressed metabolites with enhanced PARR signal pathway. The mRNA levels of peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor γ, fatty acid synthase, and suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 in goose primary pre-adipocytes were significantly upregulated with high leptin treatment and decreased significantly with increasing testosterone dose. Hence, reduced testosterone and increased leptin levels after caponization possibly promoted adipocytes proliferation and abdominal fat deposition by altering the expression of PPAR pathway related genes in caponized ganders. This study provides a new direction for the mechanism through which testosterone regulates the biological function of leptin and fat deposition in male animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Insight into the Processing and Characterization of Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils)

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18 pages, 2858 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Processing Conditions during Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Deer By-Product Tallow for Targeted Changes at the Molecular Level and Properties of Modified Fats

by Tereza Novotná, Pavel Mokrejš, Jana Pavlačková and Robert Gál

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(7), 4002; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25074002 - 3 Apr 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2100

Abstract

In most cases, the unused by-products of venison, including deer tallow, are disposed of in rendering plants. Deer tallow contains essential fatty acids and can be used to prepare products for everyday food and advanced applications. This work aimed to process deer tallow into hydrolyzed products using microbial lipases. A Taguchi design with three process factors at three levels was used to optimize the processing: amount of water (8, 16, 24%), amount of enzyme (2, 4, 6%), and reaction time (2, 4, 6 h). The conversion of the tallow to hydrolyzed products was expressed by the degree of hydrolysis. The oxidative stability of the prepared products was determined by the peroxide value and the free fatty acids by the acid value; further, color change, textural properties (hardness, spreadability, stickiness, and adhesiveness), and changes at the molecular level were observed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The degree of hydrolysis was 11.8–49.6%; the peroxide value ranged from 12.3 to 29.5 µval/g, and the color change of the samples expressed by the change in the total color difference (∆E*) was 1.9–13.5. The conditions of enzymatic hydrolysis strongly influenced the textural properties: hardness 25–50 N, spreadability 20–40 N/s, and stickiness < 0.06 N. FTIR showed that there are changes at the molecular level manifested by a decrease in ester bonds. Enzymatically hydrolyzed deer tallow is suitable for preparing cosmetics and pharmaceutical matrices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Insight into the Processing and Characterization of Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils)

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11 pages, 962 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method for the Determination of Squalene, Cholesterol and Their Oxidation Products in Food of Animal Origin by GC-TOF/MS

by Małgorzata Czerwonka, Agnieszka Białek and Barbara Bobrowska-Korczak

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25(5), 2807; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25052807 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2315

Abstract

Cholesterol present in food of animal origin is a precursor of oxysterols (COPs), whose high intake through diet can be associated with health implications. Evaluation of the content of these contaminants in food is associated with many analytical problems. This work presents a GC-TOF/MS method for the simultaneous determination of squalene, cholesterol and seven COPs (7-ketocholesterol, 7α-hydroxycholesterol, 7β-hydroxycholesterol, 25-hydroxycholesterol, 5,6α-epoxycholesterol, 5,6β-epoxycholesterol, cholestanetriol). The sample preparation procedure includes such steps as saponification, extraction and silylation. The method is characterized by high sensitivity (limit of quantification, 0.02–0.25 ng mL⁻¹ for instrument, 30–375 μg kg of sample), repeatability (RSD 2.3–6.2%) and a wide linearity range for each tested compound. The method has been tested on eight different animal-origin products. The COP to cholesterol content ratio in most products is about 1%, but the profile of cholesterol derivatives differs widely (α = 0.01). In all the samples, 7-ketocholesterol is the dominant oxysterol, accounting for 31–67% of the total COPs level. The levels of the other COPs range between 0% and 21%. In none of the examined products are cholestanetriol and 25-hydroxycholesterol present. The amount of squalene, which potentially may inhibit the formation of COPs in food, ranges from 2 to 57 mg kg⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Insight into the Processing and Characterization of Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils)

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Review

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21 pages, 1284 KB

Open AccessReview

Use of Natural Biomolecules in Animal Feed to Enhance Livestock Reproduction

by Ikram BenSouf, Mariem Saidani, Asma Maazoun, Bochra Bejaoui, Manel Ben Larbi, Naceur M’Hamdi, Hebib Aggad, Nicolas Joly, Janne Rojas, Marielba Morillo and Patrick Martin

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26(5), 2328; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26052328 - 5 Mar 2025

Viewed by 4195

Abstract

Feed additives are crucial in livestock production, enhancing performance, health, and reproductive efficiency. Recently, there has been a shift toward natural biomolecules as feed additives, specifically targeting improved reproductive outcomes and sperm quality. This transition arises from concerns about antibiotic misuse, antimicrobial resistance, and consumer preferences for eco-friendly products, along with the superior bioavailability, lower toxicity, and reduced environmental impact of natural biomolecules compared to synthetic alternatives. Collaboration among researchers, veterinarians, nutritionists, and regulators is essential to ensure safe and effective livestock management. The review explores advancements in using vital biomolecules in reproductive processes, including plant-derived bioactives such as phytochemicals and antioxidants. It investigates not only the mechanisms but also the intricate interactions of these compounds with animals’ hormonal and physiological systems. Additionally, the review critically assesses challenges and prospects related to incorporating natural biomolecules into livestock practices. The potential benefits include enhanced reproductive efficiency and improved sperm quality. However, successful implementation requires understanding factors like precise dosing, potential interactions, and long-term health impacts. Overall, this comprehensive review highlights recent research, technological strides, and the future potential of integrating natural biomolecules into animal diets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Insight into the Processing and Characterization of Animal Fats and Vegetable Oils)

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