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International Perspectives on Aerogels

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A special issue of Gels (ISSN 2310-2861). This special issue belongs to the section "Gel Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2023) | Viewed by 20385

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Irina Smirnova

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Guest Editor

Institute for Thermal Separation Processes, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
Interests: aerogels; biorefinery; molecular methods for separation processes

Prof. Dr. Pavel Gurikov

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Guest Editor

Institute for Thermal Separation Processes, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
Interests: aerogels; soft matter; coarse-grained modeling; cryoprocesses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Baldur Schroeter

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Guest Editor

Institute for Thermal Separation Processes, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
Interests: aerogels; carbon-based materials; functionalization of aerogels

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The 6th International Seminar on Aerogels was hosted by the Hamburg University of Technology (Germany) on September 28–30, 2022. We invite all authors of accepted abstracts, both oral presentations and posters, to submit a paper to this Special Issue.

Contributions covering the topics of the seminar are also warmly welcome. Potential topics may include, but are not limited to:

Fundamental aspects of the aerogel processing, including gelation, solvent exchange and drying;
Novel precursors and preparation routes;
Modeling and simulation of aerogel processing and properties;
Application of aerogels in electrochemical and optical devices;
Sustainability and environmental aspects of aerogels;
Scale-up of production and aerogels in industrial environments.

We encourage the submission of original research articles and reviews. Short communications or perspectives are also welcome.

Prof. Dr. Irina Smirnova
Prof. Dr. Pavel Gurikov
Dr. Baldur Schroeter
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Gels is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

aerogel
supercritical drying
modeling and simulation
application of aerogels

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 3420 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Dried Porous Biomaterials from Mealworm Protein Gels: Proof of Concept and Impact of Drying Method on Structural Properties and Zinc Retention

by Martina Klost, Claudia Keil and Pavel Gurikov

Gels 2024, 10(4), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10040275 - 18 Apr 2024

Viewed by 223

Abstract

Dried porous materials can be found in a wide range of applications. So far, they are mostly prepared from inorganic or indigestible raw materials. The aim of the presented study was to provide a proof of concept for (a) the suitability of mealworm protein gels to be turned into dried porous biomaterials by either a combination of solvent exchange and supercritical drying to obtain aerogels or by lyophilization to obtain lyophilized hydrogels and (b) the suitability of either drying method to retain trace elements such as zinc in the gels throughout the drying process. Hydrogels were prepared from mealworm protein, subsequently dried using either method, and characterized via FT-IR, BET volume, and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. Retention of zinc was evaluated via energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Results showed that both drying methods were suitable for obtaining dried porous biomaterials and that the drying method mainly influenced the overall surface area and pore hydrophobicity but not the secondary structure of the proteins in the gels or their zinc content after drying. Therefore, a first proof of concept for utilizing mealworm protein hydrogels as a base for dried porous biomaterials was successful and elucidated the potential of these materials as future sustainable alternatives to more conventional dried porous materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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14 pages, 8236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly Method for Wood Aerogel Preparation with Efficient Catalytic Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol

by Qianqian Yu, Xiaohan Sun, Feng Liu, Zhaolin Yang, Shulei Wei, Chengyu Wang, Xin Li, Zechen He, Xiaodong Li and Yudong Li

Gels 2023, 9(12), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9120978 - 13 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1093

Abstract

The advancement of science and technology and the growth of industry have led to an escalating discharge of domestic sewage and industrial wastewater containing dyes. This surge in volume not only incurs higher costs but also exacerbates environmental burdens. However, the benefits of green and reusable catalytic reduction materials within dye processes are still uncertain. Herein, this study utilized the eco-friendly deep eutectic solvent method (DESM) and the chlorite-alkali method (CAM) to prepare a cellulose-composed wood aerogel derived from natural wood for 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) reduction. The life cycle assessment of wood aerogel preparative process showed that the wood aerogel prepared by the one-step DESM method had fewer environmental impacts. The CAM method was used innovatively to make uniform the chemical functional groups of different wood species and various wood maturities. Subsequently, palladium nanoparticles (Pd NPs) were anchored in the skeleton structure of the wood aerogel with the native chemical groups used as a reducing agent to replace external reducing agents, which reduced secondary pollution and prevented the agglomeration of nanoparticles. Results showed that the catalytic reduction efficiency of 4-NP can reach 99.8%, which shows promises for applications in wastewater treatment containing dyes. Moreover, investigation of the advantages of preparation methods of wood aerogel has important implications for helping researchers and producers choose suitable preparation strategies according to demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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23 pages, 3993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cellulose Nanofiber–Alginate Biotemplated Cobalt Composite Multifunctional Aerogels for Energy Storage Electrodes

by Felita W. Zhang, Paul D. Trackey, Vani Verma, Galen T. Mandes, Rosemary L. Calabro, Anthony W. Presot, Claire K. Tsay, Timothy J. Lawton, Alexa S. Zammit, Edward M. Tang, Andrew Q. Nguyen, Kennedy V. Munz, Enoch A. Nagelli, Stephen F. Bartolucci, Joshua A. Maurer and F. John Burpo

Gels 2023, 9(11), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9110893 - 11 Nov 2023

Viewed by 2327

Abstract

Tunable porous composite materials to control metal and metal oxide functionalization, conductivity, pore structure, electrolyte mass transport, mechanical strength, specific surface area, and magneto-responsiveness are critical for a broad range of energy storage, catalysis, and sensing applications. Biotemplated transition metal composite aerogels present a materials approach to address this need. To demonstrate a solution-based synthesis method to develop cobalt and cobalt oxide aerogels for high surface area multifunctional energy storage electrodes, carboxymethyl cellulose nanofibers (CNF) and alginate biopolymers were mixed to form hydrogels to serve as biotemplates for cobalt nanoparticle formation via the chemical reduction of cobalt salt solutions. The CNF–alginate mixture forms a physically entangled, interpenetrating hydrogel, combining the properties of both biopolymers for monolith shape and pore size control and abundant carboxyl groups that bind metal ions to facilitate biotemplating. The CNF–alginate hydrogels were equilibrated in CaCl₂ and CoCl₂ salt solutions for hydrogel ionic crosslinking and the prepositioning of transition metal ions, respectively. The salt equilibrated hydrogels were chemically reduced with NaBH₄, rinsed, solvent exchanged in ethanol, and supercritically dried with CO₂ to form aerogels with a specific surface area of 228 m²/g. The resulting aerogels were pyrolyzed in N₂ gas and thermally annealed in air to form Co and Co₃O₄ porous composite electrodes, respectively. The multifunctional composite aerogel’s mechanical, magnetic, and electrochemical functionality was characterized. The coercivity and specific magnetic saturation of the pyrolyzed aerogels were 312 Oe and 114 emu/g_Co, respectively. The elastic moduli of the supercritically dried, pyrolyzed, and thermally oxidized aerogels were 0.58, 1.1, and 14.3 MPa, respectively. The electrochemical testing of the pyrolyzed and thermally oxidized aerogels in 1 M KOH resulted in specific capacitances of 650 F/g and 349 F/g, respectively. The rapidly synthesized, low-cost, hydrogel-based synthesis for tunable transition metal multifunctional composite aerogels is envisioned for a wide range of porous metal electrodes to address energy storage, catalysis, and sensing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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15 pages, 3557 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Gel-Point Identification in Epoxy Resin Using Rheology and Unsupervised Learning

by Eddie Gazo Hanna, Khaled Younes, Semaan Amine and Rabih Roufayel

Gels 2023, 9(10), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9100828 - 19 Oct 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1714

Abstract

Any thermoset resin’s processing properties and end-use performance are heavily influenced by the gel time. The complicated viscosity of resin as a function of temperature is investigated in this work, with a particular emphasis on identifying the gel point and comprehending polymerization. Rheology studies carried out using a plate-plate controlled stress rheometer under isothermal conditions were used to compare three experimental techniques for figuring out an epoxy resin’s gel point. We also look at the basic modifications that take place during polymerization. We verify the reliability of the three strategies by including Principal Component Analysis (PCA), an unsupervised machine learning methodology. PCA assists in uncovering hidden connections between these methods and various affecting factors. PCA serves a dual role in our study, confirming method validity and identifying patterns. It sheds light on the intricate relationships between experimental techniques and material properties. This concise study expands our understanding of resin behavior and provides insights that are essential for optimizing resin-based processes in a variety of industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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15 pages, 7743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heat-Treated Aramid Pulp/Silica Aerogel Composites with Improved Thermal Stability and Thermal Insulation

by Zhi Li, Kai Shen, Min Hu, Yury M. Shulga, Zhenkui Chen, Qiong Liu, Ming Li and Xiaoxu Wu

Gels 2023, 9(9), 749; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9090749 - 14 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1148

Abstract

In this work, we prepared heat-treated aramid pulp/silica aerogel composites (AP/aerogels) and investigated in detail the feasibility of improving thermal stability and thermal insulation via tailored heat treatment. The microstructure and FTIR spectra reveal that AP/aerogels are formed by a physical combination of the silica aerogel matrix and aramid pulps. When the heat treatment temperature increases, the density slightly decreases and then increases to the maximum due to the significant volume shrinkage. The pyrolysis of aramid pulp and the collapse of silica skeletons occur during heat treatment; nevertheless, the typical structures of AP/aerogels do not change significantly. It is also found that both the hydrophobicity and the thermal insulation decrease with the increasing heat treatment temperature. We note that when the heat treatment is at 600 °C, the AP/aerogel still maintains a low density of 0.19 g/cm³ and a contact angle of 138.5°. The thermal conductivity is as low as 26.11 mW/m/K, measured using the transient hot wire method. Furthermore, the heat-treated AP/aerogels can avoid heat shock and possible thermal hazards during practical thermal insulation applications. The onset temperatures of the thermal decomposition of AP/aerogels increase from 298.8 °C for an untreated one to 414.7 °C for one treated at 600 °C, indicating that the thermal stability of AP/aerogels is improved significantly. This work provides a practical engineering approach to expand the thermal insulation applications of silica aerogel composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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17 pages, 5917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerogel Technology for Thermal Insulation of Cryogenic Tanks—Numerical Analysis for Comparison with Traditional Insulating Materials

by Matteo Sambucci, Federico Savoni and Marco Valente

Gels 2023, 9(4), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9040307 - 06 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2733

Abstract

The traditional choice of insulation material for liquefied natural gas (LNG) transportation with cryogenic tankers is the back-filled perlite-based system. However, aiming to further cut down the insulation cost, spare additional arrangement space, and provide safety in installation and maintenance, the requirement of looking for alternative materials still exists. Fiber-reinforced aerogel blankets (FRABs) could represent good candidates in designing insulation layers for LNG cryogenic storage because of their ability to ensure adequate thermal performance without the need to create deep vacuum conditions in the annular space of the tank. In this work, a finite element method (FEM) model was developed to study the thermal insulation performance of a commercial FRAB (Cryogel ^® Z) for application in cryogenic storage/transport LNG tanks, comparing it with the performance of traditional perlite-based systems. Within the reliability limits of the computational model, the analysis proved that FRAB insulation technology gave encouraging results and might be potentially scalable for transporting cryogenic liquid. In addition to demonstrating superior performance in terms of thermal insulating efficiency and boil-off rate over the perlite-based system, as far as a perspective of cost savings and space gain, FRAB technology allows for higher levels of insulation without vacuum and with lower thickness of the outer shell, which is therefore beneficial for storing more material and lightening the weight of the LNG transportation semitrailer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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11 pages, 2347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radioactivity/Radionuclide (U-232 and Am-241) Removal from Waters by Polyurea-Crosslinked Alginate Aerogels in the Sub-Picomolar Concentration Range

by Ioannis Ioannidis, Ioannis Pashalidis, Grigorios Raptopoulos and Patrina Paraskevopoulou

Gels 2023, 9(3), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030211 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1311

Abstract

The removal of radionuclide/radioactivity from laboratory and environmental water samples under ambient conditions was investigated via batch-type experiments using polyurea-crosslinked calcium alginate (X-alginate) aerogels. Water samples were contaminated with traces of U-232 and Am-241. The removal efficiency of the material depends strongly on the solution pH; it is above 80% for both radionuclides in acidic solutions (pH 4), while it decreases at about 40% for Am-241 and 25% for U-232 in alkaline solutions (pH 9). This is directly associated with the presence of the radionuclide species in each case; the cationic species UO₂²⁺ and Am³⁺ prevail at pH 4, and the anionic species UO₂(CO₃)₃^4– and Am(CO₃)₂⁻ prevail at pH 9. Adsorption on X-alginate aerogels is realized by coordination of cationic species on carboxylate groups (replacing Ca²⁺) or other functional groups, i.e., –NH and/or –OH. In environmental water samples, i.e., ground water, wastewater and seawater, which are alkaline (pH around 8), the removal efficiency for Am-241 is significantly higher (45–60%) compared to that for U-232 (25–30%). The distribution coefficients (K_d) obtained for the sorption of Am-241 and U-232 by X-alginate aerogels are around 10⁵ L/kg, even in environmental water samples, indicating a strong sorption affinity of the aerogel material for the radionuclides. The latter, along with their stability in aqueous environments, make X-alginate aerogels attractive candidates for the treatment of radioactive contaminated waters. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study on the removal of americium from waters using aerogels and the first investigation of adsorption efficiency of an aerogel material at the sub-picomolar concentration range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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16 pages, 2335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Performance of Monolithic Silica Aerogel with Different Hydrophobicities: Physical and Color Rendering Properties after an Accelerated Aging Process

by Costanza Vittoria Fiorini, Francesca Merli, Elisa Belloni, Mary K. Carroll, Ann M. Anderson and Cinzia Buratti

Gels 2023, 9(3), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9030210 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1256

Abstract

Due to its excellent properties, monolithic silica aerogel is a promising material for innovative glazing systems. Since glazing systems are exposed to deteriorating agents during building service life, it is essential to investigate the long-term performance of aerogel. In the present paper, several 12.7 mm-thick silica aerogel monoliths produced by a rapid supercritical extraction method were tested, including both hydrophilic and hydrophobic samples. After fabrication and characterization of hydrophobicity, porosity, optical and acoustic properties, and color rendering, the samples were artificially aged by combining temperature and solar radiation effects in an experimental device specifically developed at the University of Perugia. The length of the experimental campaign was determined using acceleration factors (AFs). Temperature AF was evaluated according to the Arrhenius law using thermogravimetric analysis to estimate the aerogel activation energy. A natural service life of 12 years was achieved in about 4 months, and the samples’ properties were retested. Contact angle tests supported by FT-IR analysis showed loss of hydrophobicity after aging. Visible transmittance values in the 0.67–0.37 range were obtained for hydrophilic and hydrophobic samples, respectively. The aging process involved optical parameter reduction of only 0.02–0.05. There was also a slight loss in acoustic performance (noise reduction coefficient (NRC) = 0.21–0.25 before aging and NRC = 0.18–0.22 after aging). For hydrophobic panes, color shift values in the 10.2–59.1 and 8.4–60.7 ranges were obtained before and after aging, respectively. The presence of aerogel, regardless of hydrophobicity, results in a deterioration in light-green and azure tones. Hydrophobic samples had lower color rendering performance than hydrophilic aerogel, but this did not worsen after the aging process. This paper makes a significant contribution to the progressive deterioration assessment of aerogel monoliths for applications in sustainable buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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17 pages, 2589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Drying of Hierarchically Organized Porous Silica Monoliths–Comparison of Evaporative and Supercritical Drying

by Richard Kohns, Jorge Torres-Rodríguez, Daniel Euchler, Malina Seyffertitz, Oskar Paris, Gudrun Reichenauer, Dirk Enke and Nicola Huesing

Gels 2023, 9(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9010071 - 16 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2117

Abstract

In this study, we present a detailed comparison between a conventional supercritical drying process and an evaporative drying technique for hierarchically organized porous silica gel monoliths. These gels are based on a model system synthesized by the aqueous sol–gel processing of an ethylene-glycol-modified silane, resulting in a cellular, macroporous, strut-based network comprising anisotropic, periodically arranged mesopores formed by microporous amorphous silica. The effect of the two drying procedures on the pore properties (specific surface area, pore volume, and pore widths) and on the shrinkage of the monolith is evaluated through a comprehensive characterization by using nitrogen physisorption, electron microscopy, and small-angle X-ray scattering. It can clearly be demonstrated that for the hierarchically organized porous solids, the evaporative drying procedure can compete without the need for surface modification with the commonly applied supercritical drying in terms of the material and textural properties, such as specific surface area and pore volume. The thus obtained materials deliver a high specific surface area and exhibit overall comparable or even improved pore characteristics to monoliths prepared by supercritical drying. Additionally, the pore properties can be tailored to some extent by adjusting the drying conditions, such as temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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21 pages, 7946 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by María V. Reyes-Peces, Rafael Fernández-Montesinos, María del Mar Mesa-Díaz, José Ignacio Vilches-Pérez, Jose Luis Cárdenas-Leal, Nicolás de la Rosa-Fox, Mercedes Salido and Manuel Piñero

Gels 2023, 9(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels9010067 - 14 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1723

Abstract

We report the synthesis of mesoporous silica–gelatin hybrid aerogels with 15, 25, and 30 wt. % gelatin contents, using 3-glycidoxypropyl trimethoxysilane (GPTMS) as a coupling agent, for tissue-engineering applications. Aerogels were obtained using a one-step sol–gel process followed by CO₂ supercritical drying, resulting in crack-free monolith samples with bulk densities ranging from 0.41 g cm⁻³ to 0.66 g cm⁻³. Nitrogen adsorption measurements revealed an interconnected mesopore network and a general decrease in the textural parameters: specific surface areas (651–361 m² g⁻¹), pore volume (1.98–0.89 cm³ g⁻¹), and pore sizes (10.8–8.6 nm), by increasing gelatin content. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and uniaxial compression experiments confirmed that the structure, thermal properties and mechanical behavior of these aerogels changed significantly when the concentration of gelatin reached 25 wt.%, suggesting that this composition corresponds to the percolation threshold of the organic phase. In addition, the samples exhibited hydrophilic behavior and extremely fast swelling in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), with swelling ratios from 2.32 to 3.32. Furthermore, in vitro bioactivity studies revealed a strong relationship between the kinetics of the nucleation and growth processes of hydroxyapatite in simulated body fluid (SBF) and the gelatin content. The live/dead assay revealed no cytotoxicity in HOB^® osteoblasts in vitro and a positive influence on cell growth, focal adhesion development, and cytoskeletal arrangement for cell adhesion. Mineralization assays confirmed the positive effects of the samples on osteoblast differentiation. The biomaterials described are versatile, can be easily sterilized and are suitable for a wide range of applications in bone tissue-engineering, either alone or in combination with bioactive-reinforced phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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11 pages, 4033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Organic Bio-Based Aerogel from Food Waste: Preparation and Hydrophobization

by Giulia Gaggero, Raman P. Subrahmanyam, Baldur Schroeter, Pavel Gurikov and Marina Delucchi

Gels 2022, 8(11), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels8110691 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1654

Abstract

In this work, organic aerogels from spent ground coffee and apple pomace were prepared and characterized for the first time. Apple aerogel was found to be much lighter than that from coffee (0.19 vs. 0.016 g/cm³, whereas the specific surface areas are comparable (229 vs. 208 m²/g). Being intrinsically hydrophilic, these aerogels were silanized, both in liquid and gas phase, to increase stability in aqueous media. The latter modification method allowed chemical grafting of the silane to the aerogel surface (evidenced by FTIR and TGA) and resulted in certain hydrophobicity, as was evidenced via contact angle measurements: both aerogels possess a contact angle of ca. 100° after the gas hydrophobization, while for the pristine aerogels it was 50°. Furthermore, it was observed that the gas-phase silanization process is more applicable to apple aerogels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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Review

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30 pages, 7545 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hybrid and Single-Component Flexible Aerogels for Biomedical Applications: A Review

by Mateusz Fijalkowski, Azam Ali, Shafqat Qamer, Radek Coufal, Kinga Adach and Stanislav Petrik

Gels 2024, 10(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10010004 (registering DOI) - 21 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1160

Abstract

The inherent disadvantages of traditional non-flexible aerogels, such as high fragility and moisture sensitivity, severely restrict their applications. To address these issues and make the aerogels efficient, especially for advanced medical applications, different techniques have been used to incorporate flexibility in aerogel materials. In recent years, a great boom in flexible aerogels has been observed, which has enabled them to be used in high-tech biomedical applications. The current study comprises a comprehensive review of the preparation techniques of pure polymeric-based hybrid and single-component aerogels and their use in biomedical applications. The biomedical applications of these hybrid aerogels will also be reviewed and discussed, where the flexible polymeric components in the aerogels provide the main contribution. The combination of highly controlled porosity, large internal surfaces, flexibility, and the ability to conform into 3D interconnected structures support versatile properties, which are required for numerous potential medical applications such as tissue engineering; drug delivery reservoir systems; biomedical implants like heart stents, pacemakers, and artificial heart valves; disease diagnosis; and the development of antibacterial materials. The present review also explores the different mechanical, chemical, and physical properties in numerical values, which are most wanted for the fabrication of different materials used in the biomedical fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Perspectives on Aerogels)

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