Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060138

Authors: Cèlia Llurba Gabriela Fretes Antoni Martínez-Ballesté Ramon Palau

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into smart classrooms (SCs) has accelerated in recent years, fostering new forms of interaction, personalization, and data-driven educational decision-making. Despite this growing interest, the literature remains conceptually fragmented, particularly regarding how AI is integrated across the technological, pedagogical, and environmental dimensions of SCs. This systematic literature review aims to provide a structured synthesis of how AI is integrated into SC contexts, their main functions, their relation to these three dimensions, and the teacher’s role in the system. Following PRISMA guidelines, peer-reviewed studies published between 2021 and 2026 were selected from Web of Science and Scopus, yielding a final corpus of 29 studies. The findings showed that AI integration is mostly concentrated in the technological dimension. The pedagogical dimension is linked to personalization, active learning, formative assessment, and instructional adaptation, while the environmental dimension is less developed. Teachers remain central actors who integrate technological tools, interpret the generated data, and mediate pedagogical decisions. Overall, AI-supported SCs are not only defined by technology but also by pedagogical use and teacher mediation.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060137

Authors: Hakan Öntaş Harun Çiğdem

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) in cardiac surgery refers to the integration of advanced computational models, such as Large Language Models (LLMs), to automate and enhance clinical decision-making, preoperative risk assessment, and surgical education. In the context of surgical training, it functions as a personalized pedagogical tool that supports various learning activities, ranging from information acquisition and clinical inquiry to procedural practice, while requiring rigorous human oversight to ensure patient safety and clinical accuracy. (1) Background: Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) is increasingly integrated into health professions education, offering new opportunities for learning; however, its specific application and pedagogical mapping in high-stakes fields such as cardiac surgery remain underexplored. This systematic review investigates how GenAI is utilized in cardiac surgery and surgical education, aligning these uses with Laurillard’s six learning types. (2) Methods: Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we searched the Web of Science Core Collection for studies on GenAI in cardiac surgery, resulting in 42 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Study quality was appraised using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI). (3) Results: GenAI applications most frequently supported clinical inquiry (93.8%) and practice (68.8%), demonstrating expanding efficiency across commercial and open-source models (including ChatGPT-4o, Gemini AI, and emerging reasoning architectures such as DeepSeek) for knowledge acquisition and medical production. While it significantly improves individualized learning and preoperative assessment workflows, its practical role in Discussion and Collaboration remains heavily underutilized, highlighting a distinct shift toward individualized solo professional workflows. (4) Conclusions: GenAI provides a transformative and scalable approach to cardiac surgical training by offering personalized and accessible knowledge retrieval. However, clinical educators and governance bodies must deliberately balance these immediate productivity benefits with long-term concerns regarding structural “hallucinations,” data verifiability, and the preservation of collaborative competencies within modern multidisciplinary Heart Teams.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060136

Authors: Jerred Junqi Wang

Background: This scoping review examines how schedule-related load affects athletic and team performance in professional sport, an issue that has received less systematic attention than training and competition load despite its clear implications for recovery, injury risk, and performance. Methods: Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and MEDLINE were searched for relevant publications (1993–2025) examining schedule-related load in professional sport. Five theoretical frameworks (Fitness-Fatigue, Circadian Disruption, Allostatic Load, Training-Injury Prevention, and Conservation of Resources) were used to interpret underlying mechanisms. Results: Seventy-two sources were included. At the athlete level, schedule-related load degrades physical performance, impairs sleep and recovery, increases injury risk, and disrupts circadian function. At the team level, it deteriorates game outcomes, alters offensive and defensive strength, and constrains lineup management. Six research gaps were identified involving measurement, interaction effects, advanced metrics, player heterogeneity, integration with training load, and longitudinal analysis. Conclusions: The findings position schedule design as a measurable performance variable and highlight the need for more rigorous sport analytics research to support evidence-based optimization of competition calendars and workload management.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060135

Authors: Andrés González Novoa María Lourdes C. González Luís Pedro Perera Méndez María Daniela Martín Hurtado

Strategic Autobiographical Narrative is a pedagogical concept designating the deliberate and structured use of self-narration as a tool for learning, identity reconstruction and community engagement in contexts of social exclusion. Its strategic dimension lies in the conscious articulation of memory, language and transformative action: converting lived experience into pedagogical material capable of resignifying biographical trajectories, sustaining the openness of identity to new readings, and projecting possible futures from a critical and communal perspective. The concept operates through three synchronic registers: as temporal mediation, reopening biographical time where institutions tend to freeze it; as identity mediation, sustaining the mobility of the self against classificatory fixation; and as relational mediation, creating the conditions for the intersubjective event of recognition within a space of non-judgmental listening. Against the disciplinary institution’s tendency to fix identity under a single classificatory reading, the concept recovers the subject’s capacity to reinscribe their past within an open narrative and project a future not prefigured by their carceral present. Its operational methodology is structured around the ELCEN method—listen, read, converse, write and narrate—and deploys diverse autobiographical pathways oriented toward both the reconstruction of the subject’s identity and the community’s sensibilisation in the process of social reintegration. At its core lies a conviction safeguarded by oral tradition for millennia before anyone theorised it: to narrate is to coexist.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060134

Authors: Mihail Kolev Tatiana Simeonova

Digital tools in aluminum alloy processing are computational, sensing-based, and data-driven methods used to understand, predict, monitor, optimize, and control how aluminum alloys are transformed into components. They support decisions across casting, deformation processing, heat treatment, welding, surface engineering, and additive manufacturing by linking processing conditions with geometry, microstructure, defects, properties, and service performance. In technical use, the term includes finite element method (FEM), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), CALculation of PHAse Diagrams (CALPHAD), microstructure models, machine-learning regressors, surrogate models, nondestructive digital inspection, image-analysis tools, and digital twins. These tools are most effective when they establish links among controllable processing variables, underlying metallurgical mechanisms, measurable quality indicators, and service-relevant performance outcomes.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060133

Authors: Nii A. Tawiah Alberta N. A. Aryee

West African cuisine is among the world’s most complex and historically significant culinary traditions, shaped by diverse ecosystems, centuries of trans-regional trade, and the cultural heritage of more than three hundred distinct ethnic groups spanning the Atlantic coast and the Sahel. West African cuisine has undergone a significant cultural and culinary transformation in the American food landscape, moving from relative obscurity to mainstream visibility. This entry examines the rise of West African cuisine in the United States, with particular attention to jollof as a cultural symbol of identity, diaspora, and culinary diplomacy. Drawing on academic scholarship, food journalism, and primary cultural sources, the entry traces the historical roots of West African foodways through the transatlantic slave trade and their enduring influence on American culinary traditions. It further explores how contemporary chefs, restaurateurs, and food writers of West African descent, including Eric Adjepong, Pierre Thiam, and Kwame Onwuachi, have elevated the cuisine within American fine dining and popular culture. The entry also addresses the role of social media, particularly the viral “Jollof Wars,” in amplifying West African culinary culture globally, culminating in UNESCO’s recognition of Senegalese jollof rice as an element of intangible cultural heritage. Questions of structural barriers, authenticity, and representation are critically examined. The entry argues that while West African cuisine is experiencing unprecedented visibility in America, its mainstream acceptance remains mediated by cultural filters that risk diluting its complexity and richness. Ultimately, this entry positions West African cuisine not merely as a culinary trend but as a living expression of diasporic identity, cultural resilience, and global influence.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060132

Authors: Stelios Pantazidis

The terms democracy and the pedagogy of the possible name an approach imagining schools as sites where more just, inclusive and participatory collective life can be practised, particularly in early childhood. The entry brings three traditions into dialogue. (a) Critical pedagogy, particularly in its post-structuralist, Foucauldian, and post-Marxist readings, engages with Rancièrian critiques of pedagogical mastery and offers a vocabulary for examining how power, knowledge, subjectivity, and hegemony are produced and contested within educational life. (b) Freinet pedagogy, extended through Fernand Oury’s Institutional Pedagogy, contributes a politically grounded, practice-first repertoire of cooperative techniques, classroom institutions, and democratic forms of organisation. (c) Educational commons approaches frame knowledge, space, time, and pedagogical relations as shared goods, collectively produced, cared for, and democratically governed by a community of teachers, children, and families. In this perspective, the child is approached as a commoner and agent in the here and now. The educator, in turn, is understood as a fellow commoner and reflexive practitioner, capable of acting beyond the logics of both the state and the market. Together, they co-shape the everyday life of education. Eight shared dimensions, namely the relational, the political, praxis, agency, anti-enclosure, prefiguration, community, and the schoolized mind, traverse all three traditions, with care as their transversal thread. The framework is conceived as a hospitable theoretical and practical space, not as a self-contained doctrine. It is heuristic in orientation, bringing these traditions into conversation because each contributes a complementary layer to democratic educational life.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060131

Authors: Ahmed Hashim Azeez Harshitha Vallabhaneni Adhith Theyver Sreesha Phani Durga Rithika Kodamanchili Taha Kassim Dohadwala Vraj JigarKumar Rangrej Yan Leyfman Chandler Park

Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a pervasive monogenic disorder characterized by chronic hemolytic anemia, unpredictable vaso-occlusive crises, and progressive multi-organ damage, representing a significant global health burden. Driven by a point mutation in the β-globin gene, the resulting abnormal Hemoglobin S (HbS) polymerizes under deoxygenated conditions, leading to erythrocyte sickling and systemic endothelial dysfunction. While supportive therapies such as hydroxyurea and transfusions manage symptoms, the mandate for definitive curative therapies is urgent. Historically, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) utilizing matched sibling donors (MSD) has been the sole curative option, offering high survival rates but constrained by limited donor availability and the risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Consequently, alternative donor sources, including matched unrelated donors, umbilical cord blood, and haploidentical donors, have expanded patient access, particularly with the integration of post-transplant cyclophosphamide (PTCy) to mitigate alloreactivity. Concurrently, the advent of autologous gene therapy, encompassing lentiviral gene addition (Lyfgenia) and CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing (Casgevy) offers a revolutionary donor-independent approach that eliminates GVHD risk. Lyfgenia employs a lentiviral vector to introduce an anti-sickling βT87Q hemoglobin variant into autologous hematopoietic stem cells, while Casgevy employs CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt the erythroid-specific enhancer of the BCL11A transcription factor, derepressing γ-globin expression and elevating fetal hemoglobin. This review synthesizes the pathophysiological mechanisms of SCD, evaluates the clinical outcomes and limitations of both allogeneic HSCT and autologous gene therapies, and outlines the clinical decision-making paradigms and future innovations required to achieve equitable global access to these transformative treatments.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060130

Authors: Darren K. Griffin Rebecca E. O’Connor Luciano C. Pozzobon Worapong Singchat Kornsorn Srikulnath Denis M. Larkin Rafael Kretschmer Michael N. Romanov

Contemporary iterations of avian phylogenies based on multiple genome sequence assemblies assign three major clades: Palaeognathae (mostly ratite birds), Galloanseres (land and waterfowl) and the largest group—Neoaves. The latter two are sister clades representing subdivisions of Neognathae, while Neoaves further subdivide into Columbaves (pigeons/doves/cuckoos/bustards, etc.), Mirandornithes (flamingos/grebes), Telluraves (“higher land birds”, including finches) and the newly recognized Elementaves (e.g., penguins/pelicans/hummingbirds/swifts/cranes/shorebirds). Molecular studies provide clade information, likely divergence timings and a framework from which gross genomic (chromosomal) changes may be mapped. In this review, we consider the patterns of chromosome change that have occurred throughout all avian clades thus far examined, citing studies from standard karyotyping through molecular cytogenetics to whole genome assemblies. Standard karyotyping led to the realization that most chromosomes (particularly the microchromosomes and dot chromosomes) could not be distinguished by classical means. Indeed, cross-species comparisons were difficult, even among the macrochromosomes, because of indistinct banding patterns. Based on fluorescence (or fluorescent) in situ hybridization (FISH), comparative genomics was thence progressed considerably by cross-species chromosome painting (Zoo-FISH) for the macrochromosomes and interspecific mapping of bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) probes for the microchromosomes. A key finding was that the most studied species, the chicken, fortuitously, has a genomic organization somewhat akin to that of the ancestral karyotype and tends to be the standard from which all others are measured. A notable exception is the fusion of basal chromosome 4 with a smaller chromosome that convergently appears in some other Galliformes, at least one goose and one dove species. While some groups such as Falconiformes (falcons, etc.) and Psittaciformes (parrots, etc.) underwent extensive interchromosomal change, most, broadly speaking, retain a basic karyotype that differs little from bird to bird. Many, e.g., Passeriformes (finches, songbirds, etc.) and Columbiformes (pigeons, doves), do this despite multiple intrachromosomal rearrangements. The complete karyotype and fully established chromosome-level genome assembly of the chicken allow full integration of DNA sequence assembly with karyotype. They further permit cytogenetic studies to be performed using genome assemblies alone alongside cutting-edge long-read sequencing and optical mapping without the need for chromosome preparation. The classic ZW sex-determination system of birds is easily visible in most Neognathae species, but intrachromosomal change in the sex chromosomes is faster than in the autosomes; indeed, there are numerous examples of autosomal fusions and new sex chromosomes formed. Sex chromosomes aside, the classic avian karyotype represents a very successful mode of genome organization established before the emergence of the dinosaurs and perpetuated to this day in their only living descendants.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060129

Authors: Sheng-Ping Yang

This review examines the relationship among foreign direct investment (FDI), trade openness, and economic growth, with emphasis on the channels through which external integration influences development outcomes. The literature generally suggests that FDI can raise growth through capital accumulation, technology transfer, productivity gains, and stronger linkages with domestic firms, while trade openness can promote growth by expanding market access, increasing competition, and improving resource allocation. However, the evidence is not uniform: some studies report that trade openness is the main driver of growth, while others find that FDI has a stronger effect, or that both variables matter only under favorable macroeconomic, institutional, and financial conditions. This review synthesizes theoretical arguments and empirical findings, identifies major transmission mechanisms and conditional factors, and highlights the policy environment needed for FDI and trade liberalization to translate into sustained economic growth.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060128

Authors: Jose Israel Cardenas-Jimenez Diógenes de Jesus Ramirez-Ramirez Cristian David Correa-Álvarez

Bamboo as a functional gradient biomaterial refers to the understanding of bamboo culms as naturally hierarchical, anisotropic, and radially heterogeneous lignocellulosic structures whose mechanical, chemical, and conversion properties vary across the wall thickness. Gradients in fiber volume fraction, vascular bundle distribution, moisture, density, mineral content, and silica deposition influence stiffness, strength, durability, permeability, surface hardness, and thermal conversion behavior. This entry treats bamboo not only as a renewable plant resource, but also as a biologically organized material platform for structural components, engineered composites, and carbon-rich products such as biochar and activated carbon. A gradient-based view helps connect bamboo characterization with layer-aware processing, feedstock classification, and circular bio-based material design.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060127

Authors: Inmaculada Martínez-García Hans De Witte Francisco Javier Cano-García Jesús García-Martínez

Doctoral student wellbeing refers to the perceived state of psychological, physical, and social health experienced by a person during the process of completing a doctoral thesis. From a eudaimonic and salutogenic perspective, this construct goes beyond the mere absence of distress and incorporates dimensions such as meaning and purpose in life, personal growth, autonomy, feelings of mattering, and the quality of academic and personal relationships. It is a multidimensional construct shaped by the interaction between personal variables, including prior psychological history, personality traits, and task motivation, among others, and contextual variables, such as funding conditions, quality of supervision, departmental culture, family and personal circumstances, and social and institutional support networks. Doctoral wellbeing is therefore dynamic: it evolves throughout the different phases of the doctoral process and is influenced by conditions specific to this population that distinguish it from other groups of students or workers. It has emerged as a critical concern in higher education research, driven by evidence of high rates of psychological difficulties among this population. This entry paper offers a narrative and conceptual review of the current state of knowledge on doctoral student wellbeing, identifying the main challenges facing this group, the factors that influence their wellbeing, and the pathways forward in terms of intervention and future research.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060126

Authors: Cherry Canovan

Science Festivals are public events focused on showcasing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in a celebratory and engaging setting similar in atmosphere to an arts or music event. Aimed at the general public, science festivals vary widely in form and duration, lasting from anywhere between a day and several weeks, and featuring interactive activities such as hands-on workshops, live demonstrations, lectures, and performances. Many include dedicated programming for schools, but they differ from school-based science fairs, which are aimed primarily at students and parents and are typically held on school premises. Their aims include sparking curiosity, promoting scientific literacy, enabling visitors to interact with working scientists, and making science fun and accessible. Festivals are distinct from other informal science engagement formats due to their temporary, joyful nature and diversity of offerings. The modern science festival concept originated in Edinburgh in 1989 and has since experienced rapid global spread. Hundreds of events now take place annually throughout Europe and North America, and to a lesser extent other parts of the world, supported by associations such as the UK Science Festivals Network, the European Science Engagement Association, and, in the USA and Canada, the Science Festival Alliance. Some of the largest festivals see attendance figures in the hundreds of thousands, and across the world, millions of people participate every year. An emerging body of research literature, situated within a variety of social science disciplines and lenses, suggests that festivals are greatly enjoyed by their attendees, and succeed in boosting science interest, increasing knowledge, and improving perceptions of science among visitors, making them a potential asset for societies that place a high value on scientific activity among the population. However, the events have also attracted criticism for their limited audience diversity, with visitors being disproportionately drawn from highly educated and affluent groups, prompting suggestions that they are ‘preaching to the converted’. In response, some festivals have introduced targeted initiatives such as community outreach and partnerships to attract audiences from underrepresented communities. Despite these ongoing challenges, science festivals continue to evolve and grow as platforms for inspiring curiosity and fostering meaningful public dialogue around key scientific topics.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060125

Authors: Yuval Reiser Luka Marković Ivica Pelivan Ana Ivanišević Dragana Gabrić

The term “periapical lesion” refers to a pathological change in the tissues surrounding the apex of a tooth root, defined by its anatomical location rather than a distinct disease entity. Periapical lesions may be of endodontic origin, most commonly resulting from microbial infection of the root canal system following pulp necrosis due to caries, trauma, or other insults, or of non-endodontic origin, such as developmental cysts, benign and malignant odontogenic and non-odontogenic tumors, and fibro-osseous lesions. Accurate diagnosis requires a systematic approach combining patient history, clinical examination, pulp vitality testing, and radiographic assessment; histopathological evaluation is indicated when clinical and radiographic findings are inconsistent or suspicious. The pathophysiology of these lesions involves dynamic interactions between root canal microorganisms and the host immune-inflammatory response. The primary management for endodontic periapical lesions is root canal treatment, which aims to reduce or eliminate root canal microorganisms through mechanical debridement and chemical disinfection. Persistent or extensive endodontic lesions and non-endodontic lesions may require surgical intervention. Molecular and inflammatory biomarkers have been investigated as adjunctive tools for assessing disease activity and prognosis; however, these remain largely investigational and are not yet part of routine clinical practice. Future developments in artificial intelligence, advanced imaging, molecular diagnostics, and personalized therapies may enhance the diagnosis and management of periapical lesions, although further clinical validation is required.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060124

Authors: Dris Soulaimani

Script reforms are socially motivated actions undertaken by institutions or communities that intentionally select, modify, or standardize writing systems. Although scripts are often analyzed as technical ways of writing, designed to enhance literacy and facilitate communication, this is not how script users typically perceive them. Beyond their linguistic function, scripts acquire deep social significance through their critically intertwined relations with issues of identity, political ideologies, and linguistic differentiation. This study analyzes such ideological underpinnings within script use and discusses the social ramifications of language codification. The study draws on different orthographic debates from Africa, Asia, and beyond, to demonstrate the social nature of script. The outcome of this study has implications for communities confronting orthographic decisions and competing script choices.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060123

Authors: André Rui Graça

Entrepreneurship education in film and the creative industries refers to a set of pedagogical approaches, curricula, and institutional frameworks designed to foster entrepreneurial mindsets, competencies, and practices among students and professionals operating within the cultural and creative industries (CCIs). Going well beyond conventional business training, entrepreneurship education in this context encourages learners to identify opportunities for value creation—cultural, social, and economic—to develop sustainable modes of creative practice, and to engage critically with the markets, institutions, and communities that constitute the contemporary creative economy. Within film studies and adjacent disciplines such as media production, design, music, and the visual arts, entrepreneurship education plays an increasingly prominent role in preparing graduates for careers characterised by self-employment, project-based work, portfolio careers, and the continuous negotiation of artistic autonomy with the imperatives of professional sustainability. This entry aims to compile and organise existing knowledge on entrepreneurship education as it applies to the CCIs, with particular attention to the film and audiovisual sector, drawing on academic literature, European policy frameworks, and empirical industry evidence. The entry uses a narrative literature review approach, synthesising scholarly works from the fields of education, cultural economics, and creative industry research alongside institutional documentation and policy instruments, in order to provide a systematic and accessible account of the current state of knowledge in this area.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060122

Authors: Melita Stavrou

The present entry focuses on definiteness agreement patterns in Modern Greek by exploring the function of the definite article in structures that involve a head noun and a modifier—typically an adjective, but not only—that is also accompanied by the definite article. Such structures have been variously dubbed polydefinite noun phrases/Determiner Phrases (or, simply, polydefinites), appositions, (pseudo)partitives, and evaluative appositives in the numerous studies that have been put forward to account for them over the past four decades or so. The peculiarity of these structures is the very presence of the second definite article that shows up whenever the modified noun itself is definite; at first sight, this ‘second’ article seems redundant, or expletive. Polydefiniteness has earned a privileged position in the literature, as has been discussed extensively and in depth over the past thirty years or so. The aim of this entry is to provide i. a description of the patterns that involve a noun and a modifier accompanied by its own definite article, and ii. a comprehensive survey of the relevant literature by highlighting commonalities and differences across the basic studies that have been written about polydefiniteness.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060121

Authors: John Jairo Salazar-Buitrago Jaider Albeiro Figueroa-Flórez Cristian David Correa-Álvarez

Systemic educational change in Colombia refers to coordinated transformation across policy, teaching, curriculum, assessment, school leadership, teacher professionalization, data use, and community participation, oriented toward improving learning quality, equity, citizenship, and transitions to further study and work. This entry treats systemic change as a continuous, context-sensitive process rather than as a single reform event. Its success depends on the alignment of national direction, territorial implementation, institutional capacity, teacher agency, family and community engagement, and reliable feedback on whether students are developing the knowledge, skills, dispositions, and opportunities needed for social and labor participation.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060120

Authors: Albrecht Classen

From the early Middle Ages, but mostly the late twelfth century, the love story involving Tristan and Isolde (also Yseut) attracted much attention, originating in the Celtic world but fully developed first by the Old French poet Béroul (ca. 1160) and Thomas of England, of Britain, or of Brittanny, around 1170. It was rendered into virtually every European language since then and has also appealed to artists and musicians throughout time. We know, for example, of tiles, tapestry, sculptures, paintings, musical tunes, manuscript illuminations, and other visual representations of the intense but highly problematic relationship between these two young people. In essence, while Yseult is married to the King of Cornwall, Mark/Marke, a love potion, a metaphorical symbol of their deep feelings, bonds her with Tristan for the rest of their lives (a limited number of years in the earlier versions). Ultimately, at least in most versions, they are destined to die because of their love, which is incompatible with the social norms of their time, and this Romantic theme has hence also played a huge role in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and is perhaps highly important also today, as expressed by modern movies and music engaging with this love story. This study first traces in rough brushstrokes the history of the reception of this literary theme from the twelfth to the twenty-first century; then, it returns to the various medieval versions to investigate the critical issues contained in this highly popular story, which has never lost its relevance and attraction for audiences throughout time. Since the focus rests on the history of reception, less on comparative literature, the main tradition to be traced will be the German one.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060119

Authors: Erika María López-López Osnamir Elias Bru-Cordero Cristian David Correa-Álvarez

Generative artificial intelligence in higher education refers here to the use of computational systems that produce text, code, explanations, feedback-like responses, images, and other outputs from user prompts in university learning, coursework, assessment, and student study practices. This entry focuses on how students use generative AI while studying, preparing assignments, seeking explanations, revising work, programming, brainstorming, or responding to assessment tasks. It defines such use as a situated educational practice shaped by disciplinary expectations, assessment design, AI literacy, study habits, and academic integrity norms. From this perspective, the same AI-supported action may be acceptable as learning support in one course, ambiguous in another, and inappropriate when it conceals authorship, fabricates evidence, or substitutes for independent academic performance.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060118

Authors: Juan Manuel Garcia-Manso Alejandro Leiva-Arcas Antonio Sánchez-Pato Juan Alfonso Garcia-Roca

Addition of an Author [...]

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060117

Authors: Yang Liu Sayam Chuangprakhon Warakorn Seeyo Akapong Phulaiyaw Arthit Khamhongsa

Zhao’s Guzheng: Traditional Chinese Performance Techniques refers to a comprehensive pedagogical and performance framework within the Shandong–Northeast lineage of the Guzheng (Chinese plucked zither). This system is historically rooted in a 200-year family tradition that underwent a pivotal transition in 1953, when it migrated from Shandong Province to the Shenyang Conservatory of Music in Northeast China. It is formally defined by three primary evolutionary pillars: the physical transition from 16-string silk-string folk instruments to standardized 21-string S-shaped academic models; a rigorous right-hand symbolic codification system that serves as a technical grammar for practitioners; and its status as recognized Intangible Cultural Heritage. The tradition represents a sophisticated synthesis of regional folk esthetics, noted for its robust, vigorous acoustic identity and structured conservatory training. By bridging the gap between oral folk apprenticeships and formal institutional pedagogy, the Zhao lineage maintains its specific stylistic authenticity, known as Yun Wei (musical flavor), ensuring that the technical soul of the school remains reproducible within the modern global musical landscape.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060116

Authors: Vassilios Makrakis

This entry focuses on an Aristotelian approach to contemporary discourses about the implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) regarding what it teaches and learns, with special regard to virtue or arete, practical wisdom or phronesis, and human flourishing or eudaimonia. Even though AI technologies provide new options for personalized learning, adaptive assessment, and data-driven instruction, their increasing entrenchment in the education ecosystem raises fundamental philosophical questions about the essence of teaching and learning, and about how we become better people. Aristotle’s distinction between intellectual and moral virtues can help us determine whether AI meaningfully contributes to the cultivation of good judgment, ethical character, and responsible agency. While AI is not completely antithetical to virtue formation, its knowledge and skill acquisition cannot replace the social, experiential, and habituated processes through which virtues are grown. AI should be designed and deployed as a “technological partner” to support (not replace) the teacher’s moral and pedagogical role. Guided by Aristotle’s view of eudaimonia and the common good, this analysis suggests that education should be structured to promote human flourishing in the age of AI, ensuring that learners develop their capacities for ethical reasoning, autonomy, and co-responsible participation to build a more sustainable and just society.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060115

Authors: Seung B. Lee Danielle P. Espino

Research communities refer to the learning and social environments within which members engage in scholarly activities. Consisting of diverse actors involved in research processes, research communities provide opportunities for doctoral students to become familiar with the shared norms, values and cultures that are particular to each group. Research communities not only allow members to access pertinent knowledge, information and resources, but also offer social support and foster a sense of belonging in academia, helping students to develop into independent scholars. During their studies, doctoral students often participate in various research communities, ranging from the research lab at their institution to international networks connecting researchers from different countries. This paper focuses on ways to guide doctoral students into research communities, both within and outside of their institutions. In addition, it examines the formal and informal processes that facilitate their integration into these communities.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6060114

Authors: Antonio Cicchella Zhenyu Li

There is a lack of clarity on the isokinetic testing of professional female soccer players (PFSPs) concerning the proper use of isokinetic testing, and the existing data, useful for rehabilitation purposes, are confusing. This review aims to highlight the main methodological issues and provide guidance for performing reliable isokinetic strength (IS) based on evidence data. Following the PRISMA guidelines, we selected 18 out of 98 papers dealing with healthy PFSPs surveying four databases. It emerged that there is a large difference between subjects even in comparable test conditions (e.g., usage of the same isokinetic device). The more reliable testing speed ranges from 60°/s to 180°/s. Employing lower or higher velocities does not add information to test results. Interlimb differences in healthy PFSP are confirmed to be approximately 10 percent. The H/Q ratio does not differ through the different calculation methods, considering eccentric values or not, in any considered menstrual cycle phase. It emerged that more methodological rigor is necessary in PFSP isokinetic testing.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050113

Authors: Chuanjie He Sharizal Bin Hashim

This study explores how internal and external brand management synergistically construct employee brand equity in contemporary organizations. Drawing on social identity theory, brand equity theory, and relationship quality theory, we conducted a systematic literature review of research published from 2019 to 2024 to analyze the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral mechanisms underlying this process. Our findings reveal that internal brand management activities (brand-oriented HR practices, brand communication) and external initiatives (CSR, marketing strategies) jointly shape employees’ brand cognition, while brand relationship quality mediates emotional connections through brand commitment, trust, and advocacy. These elements ultimately manifest in behavioral expressions including brand citizenship behavior, loyalty, retention intention, and positive word-of-mouth. This research provides organizations with an integrated framework for strategically aligning internal and external brand activities to enhance employee brand support, thereby strengthening competitive advantage through consistent brand delivery across all stakeholder touchpoints.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050112

Authors: Richard Don Tustin

Concern is expressed in Australia about a group of children called dual-involvement children. Dual-involvement children live in families who have multiple complex needs, where a child is referred first to a child protection court and later to a juvenile justice court as the child has committed offenses. One concern is whether these families and children receive early intervention therapy. Method: The paper reviews research relevant to early intervention for children with an increased likelihood of developing a mental disorder and behaving aggressively. Results: Fifteen psychological models have generated evidence about risk factors for the healthy development of children. A framework is used to describe risk factors using headings of parental factors, childhood factors, and peer factors. The review summarizes effect sizes associated with each model. Conclusions: The review concludes that variables relevant to dual-involvement children can be integrated using the concept of role the of a parent. There is a need for a tiered system of intervention involving universal interventions that are supplemented by targeted interventions for families where children have heightened vulnerability due to a higher number of specific risk factors. Topics for further research are identified, including a need for research into how therapists who use a systemic approach might practice in ways that manage ethical dilemmas that arise when using systemic therapy with two members of a court-involved family.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050111

Authors: Maria Isakoglou Eleni A. Kortianou

Heart failure (HF) is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome with increasing prevalence among adults worldwide. It is characterized by complex central and peripheral alterations that contribute to exercise intolerance, fatigue, dyspnea, and reduced quality of life. Inspiratory muscle weakness (IMW) plays a key role in this vicious cycle by exacerbating symptoms and further limiting functional capacity. Inspiratory muscle training (IMT) has emerged as a potential adjuvant in comprehensive HF management and is a physiologically grounded and promising tool in the contemporary HF therapeutic toolkit. Its integration into multimodal rehabilitation programs may mitigate the cycle of dyspnea and deconditioning in patients with HF. On this basis, we provide an overview of the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying IMW and present the practical characteristics of IMT programs, synthesizing current evidence regarding its clinical efficacy and implementation challenges.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050110

Authors: Elisa Perego Rafael Scopacasa

(1) Background: Climate change and inequality are topics of major interest in Mediterranean Archaeology. However, comparatively less attention has been dedicated to how these themes are interlinked in the literature. No scoping review has ever addressed this issue. This study aims to identify major research trends on inequality and climate change in the Mediterranean c. 4000 BC–AD 500. It also pinpoints current research gaps on the topic and nascent areas of enquiry. (2) Method: We performed a scoping review on JSTOR, Scopus, Google Scholar and PubMed in December 2025–January 2026. A modified version of the PRISMA-ScR protocol was followed. We sampled journal articles, book chapters, edited volumes and monographs published between 2015 and 2025 which matched the search and inclusion criteria. Additional searches were done on Google Scholar in February 2026 to expand upon emerging research trends relevant to our topic but largely absent from the scoping review. We manually extracted, charted, analysed and synthesised the data. (3) Results: A total of 154 studies were eligible for the scoping review. We identified six research trends prominent in the sampled literature: 1. the rise and fall of world systems, macroscale causal links, and collapse research; 2. inequality, subalternity, and marginality; 3. agriculture, crops, and diet; 4. natural resource management, and water supply; 5. epistemology and methodology; and 6. natural archives and climate proxy datasets. We also recognised the following research gaps or topics that were comparatively less addressed: collapse research applied to the microscale level and marginalised communities; isotope analysis applied to both climate change and inequality in the same study; biomedical approaches applied to both climate change and inequality in the same study; social marginality as a complex construct in human–climate interactions; and the environmental and climate dimensions of the early Roman expansion, especially regarding marginality and the microscale. Finally, we identified artificial intelligence (AI), Big Data, environmental and climate activism, and the perception of climate hazards by subaltern communities as nascent topics of interest that might rise to prominence in the future. (4) Conclusions: We identified major research trends and gaps on climate change and inequality in the ancient Mediterranean in literature published 2015–2025. We also recognised nascent or unexplored topics. The review is intended as a benchmark for developing novel research on the cutting-edge of Mediterranean Archaeology.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050109

Authors: Constantine (Kostas) Skordoulis

The Social Study of Science (SSS) constitutes an interdisciplinary domain dedicated to examining the profound influence of social, political, and cultural factors on the development of scientific research and practice. Rejecting conceptions of science as an autonomous, self-directed enterprise, SSS posits that scientific knowledge is fundamentally a social product, deeply embedded within specific historical and cultural contexts. This field employs analytical frameworks from sociology, history, philosophy, and anthropology to elucidate the practices, institutions, history, and intellectual content of science. The scrutiny of science’s social dimensions has fundamentally reconfigured understandings of scientific work and methodology. During the 1960s and 1970s, the field was significantly shaped by contemporaneous protest movements, with historical materialism emerging as a critical framework for sociologists and historians of science seeking to critique power structures and alienation inherent in scientific practices. However, a subsequent intellectual shift witnessed a movement away from this materialist approach towards postmodern and constructivist analyses. Recently, a resurgence of interest in Marxian historical materialism has become evident. This is marked by a renewed engagement with pre-World War II Marxist theorists such as Boris Hessen and Edgar Zilsel, whose works are being republished and re-evaluated in light of the ongoing technological revolution in automation and machine intelligence. This paper delineates this development within SSS, highlighting the contributions of these foundational Marxist thinkers to the critical assessment and understanding of the social ramifications of the new technological revolution.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050108

Authors: Abbas Jong

This review develops a configurational account of the relationship between religion and transnationalism by addressing a specific analytical limitation in the existing literature: its tendency to oscillate between substantializing religious traditions as already constituted entities that move across borders and segmenting transnational religion into disconnected domains such as networks, migrant communities, diasporic identities, institutions, political mobilization, digital mediation, social support, or pilgrimage. While these approaches have generated substantial empirical insight, they leave undertheorized the relational formation through which religious authority, practice, identity, material circulation, symbolic boundary-making, institutional organization, and mediated presence are assembled and made socially effective across multiple scales. To clarify this problem, the review reconstructs scholarship on religion and transnationalism through five major thematic domains: transnational religious networks, religious identity in transnational contexts, religion as a catalyst of transnationalism, the embedding of religion in transnational social practices, and distinctive forms of transnational religion. This reconstruction shows that transnational religious phenomena are inadequately understood as the spatial extension of pre-given traditions, as residual expressions of ethnicity or migration, or as discrete networks, movements, institutions, or diasporic communities. They are better grasped as historically contingent and relationally ordered formations whose temporary coherence is produced through the interaction of actors, authorities, practices, discourses, infrastructures, legal-regulatory environments, memories, obligations, and material flows. Building on the concept of social configuration, the review therefore proposes transnational religious configurations as a more precise unit of analysis for studying how the religious and the transnational are mutually constituted rather than externally connected. It defines such configurations as historically specific formations in which religious categories, institutions, practices, authorities, material resources, symbolic boundaries, and cross-border conditions of possibility are articulated across local, national, transnational, and global scales. The review operationalizes this approach through three analytical levels—conditions of possibility, construction and characteristics, and social realities and consequences—and illustrates its explanatory purchase by examining a new phenomenon within the contemporary transnational revival of Shi‘i Islam.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050107

Authors: Tariené Gaum Jacques Laubscher Henry Odiri Igugu

International research and policy frameworks underscore the value of mandatory energy regulations in reducing energy demand and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the built environment. However, Global South (GS) countries experience several challenges in effectively implementing building energy efficiency codes (BEECs), as codes are either absent, unevenly adopted or inconsistently enforced. A poor alignment with the specific climatic, socio-economic and construction realities further limits the potential of BEECs to support GS climate resilience. This research aims to identify opportunities to enhance building energy regulatory practices by exploring recent progress in the field. It also systematically evaluates existing mandatory BEECs in the GS to identify models and principles that could guide the development of more effective codes, specifically for GS countries without BEECs. It is hypothesised that the mandatory BEECs currently implemented in GS countries can be analysed using contextually relevant criteria to reveal common regulatory patterns, strengths, and shortcomings, thereby informing a climate-responsive framework suited to GS realities. This research implemented a two-tiered literature review. After determining the broad regulatory context, an exploratory review of the current state of the art in BEEC research was conducted. These publications (primarily 2016–2025) were obtained via a systematic query in Scopus. Following the exploratory review, this study performed a Systematic Quantitative Literature Review (SQLR) to assess mandatory BEECs from 18 GS countries. The findings reveal that BEECs are useful for delivering energy-efficient buildings in the real world. However, ample opportunities exist to improve their comprehensiveness in context and coverage. Improving regulatory implementation systems and structures, along with robust stakeholder engagement, can support better BEEC design and enforcement. To address the need for contextualised BEECs, the SQLR helped develop a taxonomy by comparing the mandatory codes. This research also introduces the Sustainable Level Indicator Model, Matrix, and Map (SLIM3) prototype, proposed as a decision-support tool, and hosted on an interactive online platform, thereby potentially contributing to real-world building energy regulatory practices. The SLIM3 tool organises the mandatory BEECs into a coherent, accessible framework that could assist GS decision-makers in benchmarking existing and new codes, identifying gaps and prioritising contextually appropriate improvements, thus contributing to a more resource-efficient built environment.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050106

Authors: Rully Charitas Indra Prahmana Wahyu Hidayat Nur Robiah Nofikusumawati Peni Irwan Akib

Ethno Sense is defined as a culturally mediated cognitive–perceptual capacity through which individuals discern, select, and interpret mathematically salient structures in socially situated practices. The increasing recognition of mathematics as a culturally situated practice has prompted growing interest in integrating cultural contexts into mathematics education. Approaches such as ethnomathematics and Realistic Mathematics Education emphasize the importance of culture and meaningful contexts; however, a critical gap remains in explaining how individuals perceive and recognize mathematical structures within culturally embedded experiences. This entry addresses this gap by introducing Ethno Sense as a novel conceptual construct. Conceptualized as a pre-formal layer of mathematical cognition, it explains how culturally conditioned perception, interpretive schemas, and value systems shape the recognition of mathematical meaning prior to formalization. It proposes a mechanism comprising contextual indexing, schema activation and selection, and value-informed interpretation. These processes operate dynamically to guide engagement with culturally meaningful phenomena and the identification of mathematical relevance. The entry further positions Ethno Sense as an epistemological foundation for Ethno-Realistic Mathematics Education, supporting authentic context selection and progressive mathematization. By foregrounding culturally mediated perception, it shifts attention from problem solving to recognizing situations as mathematically meaningful. This study contributes a unifying theoretical construct linking cultural experience and mathematical cognition, and outlines implications for practice and future research on culturally situated learning. Ultimately it offers a lens for understanding reciprocal relationships between culture and mathematics across educational contexts.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050105

Authors: Matthias Bernt

Gentrification refers to a transformation in the composition of land users whereby in-coming users possess a higher socio-economic status than those they replace, accompanied by reinvestment in the built environment and the physical transformation of urban space. Displacement is an essential part of this process. Gentrification has become one of the central analytical concepts in urban studies. Gentrification has become one of the central analytical concepts in urban studies enabling the analysis of socio-spatial restructuring processes in cities and has been applied to a broad range of geographical settings and historical conditions. Originally coined in the context of post-war London, the concept has since traveled widely and has been applied to a broad range of geographical settings and historical conditions. This entry provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of the concept, its principal theoretical interpretations, and its empirical applications. It reviews the major strands of explanation—demand-side, supply-side, and institutionalist approaches—and situates them within broader debates in urban theory. Particular attention is devoted to the relationship between gentrification and displacement, including both classical conceptualizations and recent efforts to capture its more diffuse and subjective dimensions. The entry concludes by arguing that while gentrification remains a key concept for analyzing urban change, it must be continuously reworked in light of emerging dynamics such as financialization, digitalization, and trans-local housing practices. It calls for more systematic and genuinely comparative research in order to better understand the evolving geographies of gentrification.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050104

Authors: Cecilia Ceccarelli Vincent Monti Ilaria Giambartolomei Francesco Branda

Urban resilience to earthquakes refers to the capacity of cities to anticipate, absorb, and adapt to seismic shocks through a combination of structural, institutional, and social mechanisms. In the context of Japan, one of the world’s most seismically active countries, this concept has evolved through both post-disaster learning and anticipatory planning. This entry examines two complementary trajectories of urban resilience in Japanese cities: reactive resilience, which develops through adaptation after a destructive event, and proactive resilience, which is embedded in preventive policies and preparedness strategies before a shock occurs. The city of Kobe, following the 1995 Great Hanshin Earthquake, exemplifies a reactive trajectory shaped by institutional reform, community mobilization, and regulatory change. In contrast, Tokyo represents a proactive resilience model based on stringent seismic standards, advanced monitoring and early warning systems, and a widespread culture of disaster preparedness. By comparing these trajectories, the entry outlines a conceptual framework for understanding urban seismic resilience as a dynamic process that integrates social adaptation, governance, and technological innovation.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050103

Authors: Eziaku Onyeizu Rasheed

Real-time digitalisation refers to the continuous collection, integration, and analysis of operational building data, enabled by the integration of digital technologies into building management platforms. It is an advanced extension of building post-occupancy evaluation (POE) that transforms it from a static, retrospective evaluation process into a dynamic, data-driven methodology. In this entry, real-time digitalisation is discussed in relation to its role within the POE framework. The discussion includes a review of its evolution from early automation systems to contemporary cyber-physical infrastructures, supported by advanced analytics and machine learning. In addition, its dual benefits are highlighted as both a measurement tool and a decision-support system. Prevalent implementation complexities that limit its practicality in the building industry are also discussed. Real-time digitalisation is unlikely to replace conventional POE; instead, it broadens its capabilities, reconfiguring the process into a continuous, evidence-based building performance management process. The future relevance of real-time digitalisation to POE depends on its ability to become less technology-focused and more human-centric. Its infrastructure needs to align with occupant-subjective metrics, become more affordable, and increase its capacity to translate data into practical building management actions. As buildings become increasingly socio-technical systems, real-time digitalisation is emerging as a core methodological component of mainstream POE, with its importance spanning the entire lifecycle of buildings.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050102

Authors: Kritika Rana Stewart Alford Amber Moore Ritesh Chimoriya

Cognitive load theory-informed curriculum design in health sciences education refers to the purposeful organisation of teaching strategies and learning materials based on the principles of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), a framework developed by John Sweller in the late 1980s. CLT is grounded in cognitive psychology and recognises that the working memory has a limited capacity for processing new information. It identifies three types of cognitive load: intrinsic load, which refers to the inherent complexity of the material being learned; extraneous load, which results from ineffective instructional design or irrelevant information; and germane load, which reflects the mental effort directed toward understanding, integrating, and organising information into long-term memory. In health sciences education, students frequently engage with tasks that require the simultaneous processing of multiple interacting elements, placing high demands on working memory at specific points in time. This includes foundational biomedical sciences such as anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology extending to applied clinical skills, diagnostic reasoning under uncertainty, health service management within complex systems, and ethically grounded decision-making. Without thoughtful instructional design, learners may be overwhelmed by excessive information and cognitive demands, which can hinder understanding, retention, and performance. Applying CLT-informed strategies, educators can reduce unnecessary cognitive burden, sequence learning activities to align with learners’ cognitive capacity, and promote deeper learning. This approach supports more effective knowledge acquisition and transfer and is particularly valuable in content dense academic environments such as medicine, nursing, allied health education, public health and health service management education. Therefore, integrating CLT-informed principles into curriculum design can help optimise learning experiences and support the development of competent health professionals.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050101

Authors: Hélia Jacinto Susana Carreira

Techno-mathematical fluency (TmF) is the ability to coordinate mathematical knowledge with technological means—digital and non-digital—to solve mathematical problems and express solutions, by recognising affordances, selecting appropriate tools and data, and integrating them with mathematical ideas in iterative cycles of exploration and integration. It goes beyond instrumental tool use to encompass reasoning, modelling, representation, and communication mediated by technologies, and functions as a form of expertise important for both students’ learning and teachers’ professional practice.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050100

Authors: António Almeida João Tomás André Maravilha Luís Sousa Patrícia Pontífice-Sousa

Transgenerationality refers to the psychological and behavioral elements transmitted across generations. It is intrinsically linked to unelaborated content—such as trauma, grief, secrets, conflicts, and shame—operating through implicit and partially unconscious pathways that manifest in individual behavior. In the context of nursing, transgenerationality explores how nursing care is influenced by these dynamics and how the concept can be utilized to achieve superior health-related outcomes, such as facilitating more effective healthcare transitions. Specifically, it examines how experiences, vulnerabilities, resilience factors, and health-related patterns transmitted across generations affect overall health. As a humanistic profession rooted in person-centered care, nursing must remain cognizant of the impact of this concept on healthcare. This is particularly relevant in clinical settings where nurses are pivotal practitioners, such as mental health, health literacy, chronic disease management, and healthcare transitions. Healthcare transitions represent critical periods in a person’s life, and nurses are present across all contexts to facilitate these shifts. A primary example is the transition from hospital to home, which illustrates the importance of understanding transgenerationality within the roles of both patients and caregivers. Understanding how this concept impacts healthcare allows for the perception of transition as a holistic process. Awareness of these transgenerational operations leads to more personalized care, fostering healthier and more seamless healthcare transitions. The general purpose of this paper is to define and operationalize the concept of transgenerationality within nursing care, emphasizing its critical role in achieving better health outcomes, particularly during hospital-to-home transitions.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050099

Authors: Esra Çakar Özkan

The rapid institutional and technological transformations of the 2020–2025 period have had a significant impact on teacher professional identity. Drawing on Rosa’s social acceleration thesis and Harvey’s concept of time–space compression, this scoping review examined the dimensions of professional identity emerging in the literature published between 2020 and 2025 among in-service pre-kindergarten through 12th grade (PK-12) teachers, the educational contexts in which these dimensions were addressed, and how they interrelate. Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, 45 peer-reviewed articles retrieved from the Scopus and Web of Science databases were analyzed through inductive thematic coding and a dimension–context interaction matrix. Six analytically distinct yet interrelated identity dimensions were identified: Biographical and Personal, Professional and Pedagogical, Emotional and Psychological, Social and Relational, Political and Agentic, and Prospective and Imagined. These dimensions were organized within a dialogical space model distinguishing internal/individual and external/structural domains. The Emotional and Psychological dimension achieved near-universal representation, while the Prospective and Imagined dimension remained the least studied. Six convergence, five divergence, and six gap patterns were identified across seven educational contexts. The findings reveal that, in this period, teacher professional identity is not a fixed attribute carried by the individual but rather a dynamic process continuously negotiated under structural pressures.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050098

Authors: Georgios Polydoros Ilias Vasileiou Zoe Krokou Alexandros-Stamatios Antoniou

Artificial intelligence (AI) tools are increasingly integrated into mathematics education, yet most reviews emphasize achievement rather than how AI shapes mathematical thinking. This scoping review mapped literature published between 2020 and 2026 on AI-supported mathematics learning through three cognition frameworks: APOS (Action–Process–Object–Schema), Sfard’s process–object duality and reification, and Conceptual Image theory. Searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, PsycINFO, Education Source, and IEEE Xplore, followed by duplicate removal and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR)-aligned screening. Twenty-one peer-reviewed studies met inclusion criteria (18 empirical studies plus three theoretically oriented studies). Evidence growth accelerated after 2022, with most studies situated in secondary and higher education. Large language models (LLMs) and Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) were the most frequently investigated modalities. Across studies, AI commonly supported theoretically inferred action-level execution and procedural management (APOS) via adaptive feedback, hinting, and stepwise scaffolding, and it often broadened learners’ conceptual images through multiple representations and generated explanations. However, these interpretations were necessarily cautious, because very few studies directly operationalized theory-linked conceptual mechanisms such as process internalization, object encapsulation, reification, or alignment between conceptual images and formal definitions. In LLM-supported contexts, gains in explanation quality coexisted with risks of procedural outsourcing when students relied on generated solutions without prior reasoning. By contrast, ITS-based environments more often supported tightly structured procedural engagement, suggesting that different AI modalities afford different forms of cognitive support and risk. Overall, AI’s conceptual impact appears to depend less on tool availability and more on instructional orchestration (task design, prompting, and teacher mediation). The findings also suggest that sustainability-related dimensions—particularly learner agency, transparency of AI support, and equitable participation—are closely connected to whether AI use promotes durable conceptual learning rather than superficial performance gains. Future research should operationalize cognitive transitions, assess structural understanding, and report AI-use conditions transparently to support cumulative, theory-driven synthesis.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050097

Authors: Tea Meshvelishvili Salih Uçak Meryem Gürbüz

Raphiel Eristavi’s [Kakheti, 1824–Telavi, 1901] archival legacy constitutes a unique, underexplored corpus for examining the sociopolitical and cultural processes shaping 19th-century Georgia’s national identity. These archival documents contain his writings as a publicist, his ethnographic and geographical notes, literary texts, and private correspondence, shedding light on the intellectual and cultural dynamics of the period, particularly about reintegrating Muslim Georgian communities into the national space. Eristavi’s contributions to periodicals reflect his publicist activities, illustrating the press’s formative role in shaping public opinion, consolidating cultural identity, and fostering national awareness. His writings articulate his conviction that language, culture, tradition, and shared historical memory function as the primary instruments for reconnecting estranged territories with Georgia’s historical continuum. This entry analyzes Eristavi’s role as an intellectual and cultural mediator in integrating Muslim Georgian populations (i.e., Tao-Klarjeti and Samtskhe) into broader national frameworks, particularly in his writings on the Crimean War and Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, as well as how he engaged with questions about ethnic identity, territorial cohesion, and cultural memory. By situating Eristavi’s archive within the wider efforts of the Georgian intelligentsia, this study seeks to highlight his contribution to preserving language, promoting education, and reaffirming historical unity as essential components of national and state consciousness.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050096

Authors: André Marenco

What is the influence of different multilevel governance architectures on the provision of infrastructural powers? Multilevel governance corresponds [i] to the vertical distribution of decisions and responsibilities between territorial spheres of government, or [ii] polycentric relationships among different agents. In this work, the focus is on vertical [Type I], and polycentric models [Type II] are outside the scope of this study. Only the vertical subnational perspective will be considered, which can be associated with federalism, decentralization in administrative, fiscal and political dimensions or the scale of authority exercised by subnational governments. The result is the construction of a scale and typology of multilevel governance in the region, considering the influence on government “infrastructural powers” and, subsequently, indicators of and effective territorial penetration.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050095

Authors: W. Bernard Lee Anthony G. Constantinides

This article presents a systematic survey of six prominent quantum computing applications in finance, unified under the paradigm of optimization as the foundational use case from which derivative applications are constructed. We formalize the transition from the classical Markowitz portfolio optimization framework to a quantum implementation via the Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA), including explicit mathematical derivations, theoretical performance bounds, and convergence guarantees. Beyond algorithmic formalism, we critically assess prevailing hardware limitations, focusing on noise thresholds and coherence constraints that currently preclude a demonstrable quantum advantage over classical counterparts. Furthermore, we address the underexplored institutional prerequisites for financial deployment, including regulatory compliance, model validation protocols, and structural barriers to adoption. We conclude that despite ongoing hardware maturation, proactive engagement with quantum algorithm development is imperative for financial institutions to preempt technological obsolescence upon the achievement of hardware parity.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6050094

Authors: Cristiane Nogueira Ana Isabel Pereira Helena Rodrigues

A growing number of studies have highlighted the various sensory interactions involved in the musical experience, as relationships between music and dimensions of taste, olfaction, sound, and visual qualities, such as associations between pitch and the size of images or objects, spatial location and frequency, and instrumental timbres and visual shapes. These studies share the premise that the way we relate to the musical phenomenon, whether in the processes of production, perception, or understanding, emerges from an integrated and intrinsically multisensory perceptual event. Nevertheless, because music is present daily in everyday life and because this experience is inherently subjective, such interactions tend to occur so naturally and seem so obvious that they have been relegated to common sense. On the other hand, evidence indicates that sensory interactions constitute a fundamental ancestral mechanism for cognitive and neuronal development governed by non-arbitrary tendencies, multiple variables, and patterns of predictability. The novel contribution of this review is to advance a dynamic theoretical model of multisensory musical experience that takes crossmodal correspondences as its central organising axis, articulated through three structuring principles (universality, congruence effect, hierarchical tendency) and their interaction with musical organisation, cognitive structure, and the sensory systems mobilised by music. A future research agenda is also proposed to broaden and deepen investigations in the field of music psychology and human development.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040093

Authors: Rebecca S. Rouland Robert H. Keefe

Perinatal mood disorders (PMDs) affect approximately 15% of birthing persons during the pregnancy or postpartum (up to one year after birth) time period. People who recently gave birth and are of diverse backgrounds and identities, especially those who are oppressed, are disproportionately affected by PMDs and may experience these conditions differently. One such group is low-income birthing persons living in urban areas. This article will summarize PMDs, including their prevalence rates and how they are disproportionately experienced among low-income birthing persons living in urban areas. The factors to be reviewed include racism, cultural stigma, community stressors, issues with access to services, lack of resources, socioeconomic concerns, and healthcare system problems. Additionally, how PMDs among low-income birthing persons living in urban areas can be prevented, identified, and treated will be discussed. Strategies include practicing cultural humility and promoting anti-oppressive practice, building positive relationships with birthing persons, utilizing formal and informal social supports, promoting community engagement, sharing resources and tangible supports, following universal screening recommendations, addressing barriers to care, and advocating for effective policies.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040092

Authors: Charles Tong-Lit Leung

Social washing refers to the strategic exaggeration or misrepresentation of an organisation’s commitment to social responsibility, ethical governance, or social impact without corresponding substantive action. It typically operates through selective disclosure, symbolic initiatives, or performative communication that aligns the organisation with socially desirable values—such as equity, human rights, community development, or inclusion—while underlying practices remain unchanged, weakly evidenced, or contradictory. The concept belongs to the wider family of “washing” phenomena associated with corporate social responsibility (CSR) and environmental, social, and governance (ESG) frameworks, especially the difficult-to-measure social (“S”) pillar. By contrast, authentic accountability refers to governance and reporting practices that connect institutional commitments to verifiable social outcomes and discernible improvements in human well-being. The institutionalisation of ESG frameworks has raised expectations of corporate responsibility while also enlarging the scope for reputational manipulation. Within this setting, social washing has become relevant not only to social policy and sustainable development debates, but also to corporate governance, ESG evaluation, and cross-sector partnership practice. This entry examines how organisations construct narratives of social responsibility that do not necessarily correspond to substantive social outcomes. It also argues that such distortions matter both for welfare systems and civil-society actors and for ESG assessment, reputational signalling, and the interpretation of social performance in market settings.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040091

Authors: Diego De Leo Josephine Zammarrelli

Aging is a complex physiological process influenced by various factors, including individuals’ mental attitude. This interaction between biological vulnerability and psychological resources characterizes the entire life course; however, in older age, it becomes particularly salient due to the higher prevalence of multimorbidity, frailty, functional decline, and existential transitions (e.g., retirement, bereavement, loss of social roles), which intensify the impact of mental outlook on adaptation and quality of survival. Optimism has gained growing attention in clinical practice as a psychological asset associated with better health. This has also encouraged the incorporation of optimism-enhancing strategies into geriatric care. However, encouraging optimism in older patients, although well intentioned, can create ethical tensions in clinical communication, decision-making, and care planning. Sensitivity should be paid to aspects such as education, cultural background and religion within interactions with older adult patients. Uncritical promotion of optimism can undermine autonomy, foster unrealistic expectations, or place emotional burdens on patients who may already feel vulnerable. The appeal of optimism should therefore be balanced with careful ethical consideration.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040090

Authors: Catarina Delaunay

Sociotechnical imaginaries are collectively held and institutionally stabilised visions of desirable futures that link scientific and technological development with social and political order. Developed within Science and Technology Studies, the concept highlights the co-production of knowledge, technology, and governance, showing how ideas of progress are embedded in cultural values, moral assumptions, and political priorities. These imaginaries function as normative horizons that orient innovation, legitimise policy, shape regulation, and guide clinical practice. In health and biomedicine, sociotechnical imaginaries are particularly salient, as medical innovations directly affect life, death, and embodiment. Within medical sociology, the concept has been used to analyse how technologies such as assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs), genomics, regenerative medicine, and digital health are framed through narratives of hope, responsibility, risk, and transformation. These imaginaries shape what counts as legitimate knowledge, who accesses treatment, and how ethical debates are structured, from autonomy in ARTs to individualised care in precision medicine. Imaginaries are also shaped by national and institutional contexts. Comparative research shows that the United States, Europe, and East Asia produce distinct biomedical futures, reflecting different political traditions and governance models. As an analytical lens, sociotechnical imaginaries reveal health and biomedicine as domains where futures are imagined, contested, and enacted.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040089

Authors: David R.C. Hill

The Grover algorithm is a fundamental quantum algorithm that achieves a quadratic speedup for unstructured search problems, requiring O(√N) queries instead of O(N) classically. It works by repeatedly applying an oracle and a diffusion operator to amplify the probability of marked states. This advantage makes it relevant to cryptography, optimization, and constraint satisfaction and as a general primitive via amplitude amplification in areas like quantum machine learning and simulation. However, practical implementations are severely constrained by current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) machines with limited coherence, deep oracle circuits, and lack of scalable Quantum RAM, restricting demonstrations to small-scale experiments with reproducibility challenges.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040088

Authors: Shitnaan Wapmuk Mark Ching-Pong Poo Yui-yip Lau

The Basel Accords refer to a series of international banking regulatory frameworks developed by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision to strengthen the stability and resilience of the global banking system. Introduced as Basel I, Basel II, and Basel III, these accords establish minimum capital requirements, risk management standards, and supervisory principles for internationally active banks. Their primary purpose is to reduce the risk of bank failure, promote financial stability, and enhance consistency in banking regulation across jurisdictions. The Basel III framework and its 2017 Final Reforms represent the most advanced stage of this regulatory evolution, addressing weaknesses revealed by the global financial crisis and subsequent regulatory experience. Banking institutions play a central role in economic development, making their stability essential. The global financial crisis that began in 2007 exposed significant weaknesses in existing regulatory frameworks and led to the failure of several major banks, despite the earlier establishment of Basel I and Basel II by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. These shortcomings prompted the development of the Basel III framework as a direct response to the crisis. However, early criticisms of the initial Basel III Accord, particularly regarding variability in risk-weighted assets, reliance on internal models, and opportunities for regulatory arbitrage, led the Basel Committee to issue the Basel III Final Reforms in 2017, which represented a substantial upgrade to the post-crisis regulatory architecture. This study reviews the evolution of the Basel Accords; examines the key components of Basel I, Basel II, and Basel III; and analyses the enhancements introduced through the Basel III Final Reforms. It also considers the major arguments and criticisms surrounding these accords, highlighting the persistent challenges of achieving global regulatory consistency. Given the inability of earlier Basel frameworks to prevent bank failures and the fact that many jurisdictions have yet to fully implement the 2017 reforms, the paper underscores the need for ongoing evaluation of international banking regulation as national authorities adapt and refine their supervisory approaches to strengthen financial stability.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040087

Authors: Athanasios Tsipis Vasileios Komianos Georgios Tsoumanis

The concept of “human-centric, sustainable and resilient smart cities” in Industry 5.0 (I5.0) refers to urban socio-technical ecosystems in which digital infrastructures and services are explicitly oriented toward human well-being, ecological stewardship, and systemic resilience rather than purely technological optimization or automation. Grounded in the I5.0 framework, which promotes human-centricity, sustainability, and resilience as equally important pillars, this paradigm repositions smart cities as value-driven environments that integrate enabling technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), Extended Reality (XR), and related digital infrastructures within participatory, transparent, ethical, and accountable governance structures. From this perspective, technologies function as means through which cities develop higher-order capabilities for sensing, decision support, coordination, interaction, and adaptive service delivery. At the same time, they address digital divides and include measures that promote and protect inclusion, trust, and long-term socio-environmental viability. This entry synthesizes the conceptual foundations, technological enablers, capability-oriented architecture, governance implications, and emerging challenges that influence the transformation of smart cities into human-centric, sustainable, and resilient innovation systems in the I5.0 era.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040086

Authors: Nora Ramos-Vallecillo Víctor Murillo-Ligorred

Prosignification is defined as the process through which the subject generates new meanings by engaging in aesthetic experience, critical reflection, and creative action. Unlike general theories of meaning-making, which primarily describe the cognitive organization of experience, prosignification foregrounds the symbolic–expressive dimension as the central site of meaning production. It refers to the individual and collective capacity to construct meaning from expressive and symbolic experiences, integrating cognitive, emotional, social, and cultural dimensions of learning through intentional creative mediation. Prosignification operates between knowledge construction and subjective experience, enabling learners to connect conceptual understanding with personal interpretation and emotional involvement. Whereas knowledge construction emphasizes epistemic development and transformative learning focuses on perspective transformation through critical reflection, prosignification centers on the aesthetic reconfiguration of experience through symbolic creation and interpretation. Rooted in constructivist and experiential approaches, it unfolds through active, student-centred methodologies, particularly in Project-Based Learning contexts. However, its distinctive contribution may lie in integrating reflection, expression, and creation as interdependent mechanisms of meaning generation. Art education constitutes a particularly relevant context for this process, as its symbolic nature fosters the embodied and shared construction of meaning. Thus, prosignification cannot be reduced to cognitive restructuring or attitudinal change but involves the expressive re-symbolization of lived experience.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040085

Authors: Markus Christiner Karen M. Ludke

Singing-Oriented Language and Music Education (SOLME) is an accessible, low-resource pedagogical and cognitive framework in which singing serves as the primary interface through which musical activities support both first and foreign language acquisition processes. Early vocalizations in infancy make the overlap between singing and speech highly perceptible, forming a continuum rather than clearly separable domains. Child-directed speech similarly shares key features with singing—such as repetition, emotional engagement, exaggerated pitch variation and rhythm—and both input forms inherently combine musical and linguistic elements. Research has shown that the overlap between singing and language abilities persists throughout the lifespan, positioning singing as a valuable facilitator of language learning processes. Singing, integrated as a musical tool, has proven effective in enhancing key abilities for (foreign) language learning—including phonological awareness, pronunciation, and verbal memory, among others—and in supporting language functioning across diverse communication disorders, from developmental fluency challenges to acquired impairments. This entry outlines the benefits of singing as an integrated means to support musical development as well as first and second language acquisition processes. It outlines functional and structural similarities between singing and language development, from early caregiver–infant interaction to formal foreign-language instruction, and then discusses the many advantages of embedding singing as a musical tool in the (foreign) language learning process.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040084

Authors: Chaowei Yang Anusha Srirenganathan Malarvizhi Manzhu Yu Qunying Huang Lingbo Liu Zifu Wang Daniel Q. Duffy Siqin Wang Seren Smith Shuming Bao Nan Ding

The world evolves continuously across space and time. Massive volumes of data are generated through sensing, simulation, remote observation, and human activities, capturing dynamic processes in environmental, social, economic, and engineered systems. Critical insights are embedded within these large-scale spatiotemporal datasets. Spatiotemporal Data Science provides a conceptual and methodological framework for analyzing such data by integrating spatiotemporal thinking, computational infrastructure, artificial intelligence, and domain knowledge. The field advances methods for data acquisition, harmonization, modeling, visualization, and decision support, enabling applications in natural disaster response, public health, climate adaptation, infrastructure resilience, and geopolitical analysis. By leveraging emerging technologies—including generative Artificial Intelligence (AI), large-scale cloud platforms, Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) acceleration, and digital twin systems—Spatiotemporal Data Science enables scalable, interoperable, and solution-oriented research and innovation. It represents a critical frontier for scientific discovery, engineering advancement, technological innovation, education, and societal benefit. Spatiotemporal Data Science is a transdisciplinary field that studies and models dynamic phenomena across space and time by integrating spatial theory, temporal reasoning, artificial intelligence, and scalable computational infrastructure. It enables the development of adaptive, predictive, and increasingly autonomous systems for understanding and managing complex real-world processes.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040083

Authors: Caroline Hands

Serious video games are digital games designed for purposes beyond entertainment, typically to support education, training, health interventions, or behaviour change. They combine game mechanics with psychological and pedagogical principles, such as feedback, repetition, goal-setting, and scaffolding, to create interactive environments that facilitate learning, skill development, and sustained engagement. In many cases, they are built to simulate realistic tasks or decision contexts, allowing users to practise skills, test strategies, and learn from consequences in a low-risk setting. Within cyberpsychology, serious video games are particularly valuable because they provide structured digital contexts for examining how technology shapes cognition, emotion, motivation, and behaviour. They enable researchers and practitioners to observe how users respond to digital rewards, challenges, social features, and immersive environments, as well as how these features influence outcomes such as self-efficacy, persistence, attention, and emotion regulation. As a result, serious video games operate at the intersection of psychological theory, human–technology interaction, and applied digital intervention design. This entry provides an overview of their development, theoretical foundations, applications, effectiveness, and associated ethical considerations.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040082

Authors: William J. Davis

The apprenticeship of observation is a form of anticipatory socialization that is experienced by all individuals who attend K-12 schooling, and is particularly consequential for the subset of this population that eventually becomes professional educators. Based on extensive interviews with professional teachers, sociologist Dan C. Lortie found that the 13,000 h of experience teachers had spent watching their own K-12 teachers constituted a sort of apprenticeship in teaching. This prolonged period of observation is thought to have a profound impact on the work of teachers. By observing their own teachers across thousands of hours, professional educators are said to make decisions in the classroom and in their teaching based on their own individual personalities and preferences instead of pedagogical frameworks or theories; the teacher learning brought about by the apprenticeship of observation leads professional educators to identify teaching they liked and disliked. Teaching decisions made by these educators in the classroom are ultimately based on a binary choice between replicating or rejecting the teaching they previously witnessed as K-12 students. Over time, the apprenticeship of observation has, for some researchers and teacher educators, served as shorthand for describing the replication of traditional teaching approaches across time, in effect suggesting that teachers teach the way they were taught. The power and negative consequences of the apprenticeship of observation have led teacher educators to devise multiple interventions within teacher education programs and pedagogies, which have sought to challenge and overcome the apprenticeship of observation and its negative influence on professional educators’ teacher learning and practice.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040081

Authors: Okan Bulut Seyma N. Yildirim-Erbasli

The rapid expansion of digital and technology-enhanced assessments has enabled the capture of far more than final responses or total scores. As learners navigate traditional formats, such as multiple-choice, short-answer, and performance tasks, digital delivery platforms routinely capture response times, response revisions, navigation patterns, and item-level metadata. More advanced formats, including interactive simulations, scenario-based tasks, and game-based assessments, further record fine-grained actions such as mouse clicks, keystrokes, hint requests, sequence of operations, and decision pathways. These increasingly rich data streams provide a multidimensional view of test-taker behavior, offering evidence about cognitive processes, strategy use, persistence, and motivation that goes beyond what correctness alone can reveal. Assessment analytics refers to the systematic collection, integration, and analysis of such data generated during the assessment process. In practice, this emerging field combines principles from psychometrics, learning analytics, data science, and human-computer interaction to evaluate the quality, validity, and fairness of assessments in digital environments. The ultimate goal of assessment analytics is to produce actionable evidence about how assessments measure what they intend to measure in contemporary, technology-rich educational contexts.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040080

Authors: Sean William Maher

Deepfakes have emerged as one of the most significant developments in contemporary computational media, representing a sophisticated convergence of machine learning, computer vision, and audiovisual synthesis. Enabled primarily by deep neural networks such as generative adversarial networks (GANs) and transformer-based architectures, Deepfakes are realistic video fabrications through sound and image alteration and substitution that synthesises human likeness, speech, and behaviours. Deepfakes function simultaneously as creative tools, political instruments, security risks, and epistemic disruptors. They have generated widespread scholarly, regulatory, and public concern by contributing to the reshaping of visual communication and posing significant challenges to established norms of authenticity. This entry defines Deepfakes, outlines their technological foundations, synthesises insights from current research and assesses implications for media industries, journalism, documentary, disinformation, governance, and digital culture.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040079

Authors: Teresa Dieguez

Individual ambidexterity is the capacity of an individual to engage in both exploration of new knowledge, roles, and opportunities and exploitation of existing skills, experience, and routines in ways that support adaptation and sustained work contribution over time. Amidst the challenges of ageing demographics, digital transformation, and longer working lives, maintaining careers over the long term is becoming increasingly important to people and businesses alike. Individual ambidexterity, as the capacity to combine exploration of new knowledge and opportunities and the use of existing skills and experiences, provides a meaningful framework for thinking about adaptive behavior across career stages. In this article, we integrate insights from the literature on individual ambidexterity with career sustainability, particularly for senior professionals and late-career trajectories. Drawing on research from organizational behavior, leadership, career development, and sustainable careers, the article synthesizes key theoretical foundations, identifies relevant contextual enablers, and highlights emerging research trends. It further examines how leadership, job design, and knowledge management practices shape ambidextrous behavior across extended careers. The framework advanced here is integrative and heuristic rather than predictive. This contribution clarifies how individual ambidexterity may provide the micro-level capability for sustainable careers in ageing and dynamic labor markets by synthesizing fragmented literatures.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040078

Authors: Nataša Urošević Kristina Afrić Rakitovac Matteo Legović

Cultural heritage, with its humanistic values, is seen as a tool for preserving historical memory and reinforcing cultural identity, while its socio-economic values have a significant impact on the tourism industry. However, the contemporary global context, characterized by rapid and often unsustainable development, has intensified challenges such as tourism massification, urbanization, and climate change. To address these challenges, the authors assume that contemporary society should find a balanced development model in which heritage management becomes an integrated part of sustainable tourism practices. Although the relationship between heritage, tourism, and sustainability has been extensively explored for more than four decades, existing research remains fragmented and lacks an integrated conceptual framework that systematically explains the interconnections between sustainable tourism and heritage management. Therefore, the main goal of this paper is to develop a conceptual framework and conduct a comprehensive literature review that synthesizes these processes, contributing to the existing body of knowledge and addressing identified research gaps. The conducted research indicates that contemporary approaches should enhance integrated heritage management plans, effective visitor management strategies, carrying capacity assessments, and continuous monitoring of tourism impacts. In this context, sustainable tourism and heritage management represent a coordinated process of planning and governance aimed at ensuring the long-term conservation of cultural and natural heritage resources while enabling responsible tourism development. By reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, this paper contributes to the theoretical advancement of sustainable tourism and heritage management studies through the development of an integrated conceptual framework that addresses existing research gaps and incorporates contemporary academic insights.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040077

Authors: Thomas Gaudi Bill Kapralos Alvaro Quevedo

Advances in consumer virtual reality (VR) and artificial intelligence (AI) have accelerated the use of immersive virtual learning environments (iVLEs) for skills training. Learner engagement is a critical determinant of training effectiveness, which can be shaped by VR system features (e.g., visual, auditory, and tactile immersion) coupled with interaction mechanics and instructional design integrated with the instructional behaviors of virtual human assistants (VHAs). Although visual and behavioral fidelity in VHAs have been extensively studied, functional fidelity (i.e., the extent to which the iVLE and/or VHAs support cognitive, perceptual, and motor processes required to perform a task regardless of visual realism), and particularly the temporal alignment of instructional guidance with learners’ cognitive and motor demands, remains underexamined. This article highlights research on VHAs in iVLEs with a special emphasis on temporal functional fidelity as an emerging requirement for synchronizing instructional support with user workload and task phases. By consolidating existing findings and highlighting gaps in current empirical work, this article outlines key implications for the design and evaluation of VHAs and identifies directions for future research aimed at optimizing instructional timing in iVLEs. The goal is to inform principled VHA design and clarify how fidelity dimensions should be integrated to support effective, pedagogically grounded immersive learning experiences.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040076

Authors: Hsiao-Ping Hsu

Artificial Intelligence (AI) literacy and competency in pre-service teacher education refer to a programme-level implementation that enables teachers to work with AI systems effectively, critically, and ethically across university coursework, school placements, and early-career practice. This includes not only capability, but also professional enactment, where teachers apply AI-related knowledge in context-sensitive and pedagogically grounded ways. AI literacy refers to a shared knowledge base for understanding how AI systems generate outputs, how to evaluate and verify AI-supported information, and how to reason about task–tool fit in relation to fairness, privacy, transparency, accountability, academic integrity, equity, and environmental sustainability. AI competency refers to the application of this literacy in routine professional tasks, such as designing and justifying AI-informed teaching, learning, and assessment, protecting students’ and school data, documenting decisions, and revising AI-supported materials after checking for reliability, transparency, accountability, and equity. Together, literacy and competency extend beyond personal use of AI by preparing future teachers to support students’ creative, critical, and ethical engagement with AI, while keeping classroom practice aligned with educational goals, objectives, and values.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040075

Authors: Mehdi Mohagheghi Ali Bahadori-Jahromi Shah Room

Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based crack detection in buildings uses computer vision and deep learning to automatically identify structural cracks from inspection images. In recent years, many studies have explored this topic, but the overall development of the field, its methodological practices, and the remaining challenges are still not fully clear. Unlike most previous reviews that focus mainly on technical methods, this study combines a large-scale scientometric mapping of the research field with a focused technical analysis of recent AI-based crack detection methods specifically applied to building structures. This study therefore provides a dual-layer review covering research published between 2015 and 2025. A total of 146 Scopus-indexed publications were analysed using Visualization of Similarities viewer (VOSviewer) to examine publication growth, thematic evolution, collaboration patterns, and citation structures. In addition, a focused technical review of 36 highly relevant studies was carried out to analyse task formulations, model families, datasets, evaluation protocols, and methodological practices. The results show a rapid increase in research activity after 2020, largely driven by advances in deep-learning and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-based inspections. At the same time, collaboration networks remain uneven, and citation influence is concentrated in a limited number of research communities. The technical review further shows that most studies focus on detection-level tasks, particularly You Only Look Once (YOLO)-based models, while predictive diagnostics, automated inspection reporting, and decision-oriented Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) are still rarely addressed. Current datasets and evaluation protocols also remain mostly perception-oriented, which makes it difficult to assess robustness, generalisability and long-term predictive capability.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040074

Authors: Sareen Kaur Bhar

Speaking proficiency remains one of the most challenging skills for learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), particularly in contexts where sustained spoken interaction is limited. This systematic review synthesises 36 empirical studies (2015–2025) identified through a PRISMA-guided Scopus search to examine how artificial intelligence (AI)-mediated instruction supports EFL speaking development. The included studies were analysed according to AI modality, pedagogical integration, instructional input characteristics, and linguistic and affective outcomes. Findings indicate that AI tools—such as chatbots, automatic speech recognition systems, and large language models—consistently support affective outcomes, including reduced speaking anxiety and increased willingness to communicate. Improvements in fluency, pronunciation, and accuracy were frequently reported, particularly when AI tools were embedded within task-based and pedagogically structured instructional designs. However, evidence for sustained development of higher-order communicative competence was more variable. The review proposes a mediated input framework conceptualising AI as a design-sensitive instructional resource rather than an autonomous teaching agent.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040073

Authors: Hedviga Tkácová

Media-based cultural diversity education is approached here as an analytical synthesis that brings together established research traditions in media and communication studies, including mediatization, representation, and framing. It refers to the process through which media are understood to function as informal educational environments that shape how audiences learn about and interpret cultural differences. In contemporary mediatized societies, media institutions, including television and digital platforms, are understood to shape public understandings of diversity through the selection, framing, and visual representation of minority groups. Television is widely regarded as a particularly influential medium because of its wide reach and its institutional role in producing authoritative narratives about social reality. Through news reporting, documentaries, and other factual programming, television has been shown to circulate meanings about cultural diversity and provide audiences with interpretive frameworks through which minority groups are publicly understood. These communicative practices have been shown to influence how audiences perceive cultural difference, interpret social issues, and negotiate questions of belonging within society. By organizing narratives, frames, and visual repertoires through which cultural groups are portrayed, television has been shown to contribute to the formation of shared social knowledge about diversity and about relationships between majority and minority communities. In this sense, television can be understood not only as a channel of information but also as a cultural institution that shapes symbolic boundaries between social groups and influences perceptions of inclusion and exclusion. As an illustrative context, this entry also refers to representations of Roma communities in Central European media environments, where antigypsyism may be understood as a mediated cultural process embedded in everyday media communication.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6040072

Authors: Jingping Sun

Since the late 1970s, scholars began to develop effective school leadership models that enhance student achievement. Recent research over the past three decades has consistently shown that school leadership influences student learning mainly through indirect mechanisms rather than direct effects. The purpose of this narrative review is to synthesize the major and emerging research on school leadership models and their indirect effects on student learning and to identify the critical pathways through which school leaders successfully improve student outcomes. This narrative review delineates and presents six key pathways by which school leaders promote student learning and counteract the negative effects of students’ socio-economic status. In addition, the review highlights what distinguishes successful school principals from others and the complexity of school leadership.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030071

Authors: Susana Amante

Saudade is a cultural concept expressing a profound sense of longing, nostalgia, or melancholy associated with absence, loss, or unattainable experiences. Emerging in medieval Portugal and shaped by historical, social, and literary developments, it has evolved from an individual emotion into a collective cultural construct reflecting the identity, history, and aesthetic sensibilities of Lusophone communities. Drawing on peer-reviewed scholarship and interdisciplinary research in cultural studies, this entry examines how saudade is expressed in the literature, music, and philosophical discourse, and its role in national memory, emigration, and cultural imagination. While sometimes described as untranslatable, its uniqueness reflects deep historical and cultural embedding rather than a linguistic limitation. Saudade, therefore, functions as a multilayered symbolic category, revealing the interplay between emotion, language, and cultural identity in Lusophone contexts.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030070

Authors: Maurice Dawson Samson Quaye

Doctoral training in applied computing and information systems is the structured development of a researcher’s capacity to produce original, rigorous, and scholarship that is relevant to practice, supported through doctoral supervision, which provides academic guidance for research design decisions, progress management, scholarly quality, and researcher development. In this setting, Design Science Research (DSR) is a methodology that generates knowledge through the purposeful design and evaluation of an artifact intended to address a defined problem. In parallel, Action Research (AR) generates knowledge through collaborative, iterative cycles of planned action and critical reflection conducted with stakeholders in real settings. Bringing both traditions together, Action Design Research (ADR) integrates DSR and AR by developing and evaluating artifacts through participatory cycles focused on intervention while maintaining explicit expectations of rigor and contribution. These approaches are often used in international or study abroad research contexts, which are research environments spanning national, cultural, institutional, or governance boundaries and therefore require adaptive methods, careful ethical attention, and sustained stakeholder engagement. This synthesis results in an integrated methodological framework that positions Action Design Research as a supervisory scaffold for doctoral training in applied computing and information systems. The framework integrates Design Science Research and Action Research within an iterative cycle embedded in dialogical supervision and ethical reflexivity. It contributes a structured model for aligning methodological rigor, doctoral learning, and practical impact in complex and international research environments.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030069

Authors: Seyma Yildirim-Erbasli Munevver Ilgun Dibek Alexander Taikh

Cognitive Learning Analytics (CLA) is an interdisciplinary domain that combines cognitive science and learning analytics to interpret and enhance human learning through theoretically grounded data analysis. It integrates learning analytics with models of cognition to support theoretically grounded interpretation of learner data. Learning analytics, since its inception in 2011, has developed as a research field and applied practice, focusing on “the measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of data about learners and their contexts.” It focuses on understanding and optimizing learning processes and environments by leveraging large-scale, multimodal educational data. Cognitive science, in parallel, provides established theories of human learning, memory, attention, and metacognition. CLA links observable behaviors with theoretically defined cognitive mechanisms. Through the integration of cognitive theories and computational techniques, CLA models how learners process information, make decisions, and construct knowledge in digital learning environments. CLA employs diverse data sources—including clickstream logs, eye tracking, biometric signals, and linguistic traces—to infer learners’ cognitive and affective states. These inferences inform adaptive learning systems, personalized feedback mechanisms, and intelligent tutoring tools that respond dynamically to the learner’s mental workload, engagement, or metacognitive strategies.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030068

Authors: Danilo Capecchi Giulia Capecchi

There is no consensus among historians when it comes to the importance of Vincenzo Galilei’s role in the history of music and science, especially when it comes to his contribution to the birth of modern experimentalism. Galilei’s written works, even those left in manuscript form, most of which have now been transcribed and published, do not provide a clear picture of his contribution. Moreover, there is a lack of private documents, such as letters, which informally describe his approach, working hypotheses, and doubts. Nevertheless, his writings enable us to conclude two things with certainty: he believed that reason-mediated experimentation was the only reliable source of knowledge, and he engaged in an intense and interesting experimental activity.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030067

Authors: Badar Alam Iqbal Arti Yadav

In an era of rising geopolitical tensions, repeated global crises, and growing uncertainty in trade and finance, economic resilience has become a key priority for policymakers. This study presents an understanding by distinguishing regional resilience from global resilience, offering hardnosed explanations of both concepts and outlining mensurable indicators for each. Regional resilience is the capacity of an economy to endure and recuperate from shocks by way of strong, cost-effective connections in its region. These could be seen in terms of intra-bloc trade power, trade concentration, intra-regional investment flows and constant capital flows, which indicate the deep economical integration and interdependence. On the contrary, global resilience is concerned with the extent to which an economy is guarded by larger global diversification. It is quantified by the distribution of exports and investments geographically, the extent and diversity of trade partners, membership on global value chains, and the stability of the cross-border capital flows. Understanding the difference between these two forms of resilience has become increasingly important for policy design, especially in a period marked by repeated crises, geopolitical tension, and shifting trade and financial conditions. Countries must decide not only how open their economies should be, but also whether openness should be integrated regionally, diversified globally, or stable through a hybrid approach. Further, it argues that regional integration is peculiarly invaluable during region-wide disruptions such as pandemics, financial crises, or supply shortages, where integrated policies can reduce adjustment costs and protect demand and supply chains. However, global diversification becomes significant in areas such as energy and commodity security, where dependence on limited suppliers can magnify risks. Ultimately, most economies benefit from combining both approaches (a hybrid approach), adapting their strategy to the development stage, institutional strengths, and exposure to external shocks.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030066

Authors: Miriam Molina-Soria José Luis Aparicio-Herguedas Teresa Fuentes-Nieto Víctor M. López-Pastor

The combination of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Formative Assessment (FA) in Teacher Education explores how emerging technologies can enhance teaching practices and professional development. AI tools can provide personalized feedback, identify learning needs, and support reflective practice among educators. Integrating AI-driven formative assessment methods allows for continuous evaluation of teaching competencies, promoting adaptive learning, data-informed decision-making, and improved instructional quality in teacher education programs. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the use of Formative Assessment (FA) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Teacher Education (TE) during the period 2020–2025 (inclusive). The review was conducted following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology, which ensures a rigorous, transparent, and reproducible process in the selection and analysis of studies. To this end, scientific articles published in the Scopus, Web of Science and Dialnet databases were reviewed, considering publications in English and Spanish. The objective was to identify trends, methodological approaches, results, and research gaps that show how AI is being integrated, or not, into FA processes in TE. The review also sought to analyze the impact of AI on student participation in assessment, feedback, decision-making, and the learning and assessment process itself, synthesizing the current evidence on the relationship between AI and FA in TE.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030065

Authors: Marta Sainz-Gómez María José Ruiz-Melero Claudia Chamorro-Troncos Rosario Bermejo García

The study of resilience has long focused on understanding how individuals positively adapt to adversity, a process that directly influences emotional stability. Resilience, defined as the capacity to confront, overcome, and transform complex challenges constructively while strengthening oneself in the process, represents a transversal trait in human development. It also entails engaging in a personal growth trajectory that fosters self-awareness and internal coherence. Within the context of high abilities, this construct assumes particular significance, as students with high cognitive potential, but they are not immune to socio-emotional and educational vulnerabilities. These vulnerabilities may arise from asynchronies between intellectual and emotional development, among other factors, and influence specific coping strategies that, in turn, affect academic and social outcomes. Furthermore, high abilities students often have unique educational needs that may be insufficiently recognized or supported within their socio-cultural environments. Consequently, resilience in high abilities students should be understood as a dynamic process shaped not only by individual cognitive resources but also by contextual factors. A thorough analysis of the specific vulnerabilities of this population, and their interactions with environmental influences, is essential for fostering resilience and designing psychoeducational interventions that enhance academic achievement, promote inclusive practices, and support overall well-being.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030064

Authors: Theofanis Zacharatos Prokopis Theodoridis

Sustainability can be broadly understood as the capacity of human societies to operate within ecological limits while maintaining long-term social and economic stability. Within global policy frameworks, it has evolved from a normative ideal to a structured and measurable paradigm of governance. This article outlines the institutional and political evolution of sustainability, tracing how international agreements—from the 1972 Stockholm Conference to Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement—have transformed environmental concerns into quantifiable commitments. The modern concept of sustainability emphasises integration across sectors and scales, linking environmental protection with development, equity, and resilience. Understanding this trajectory is essential for interpreting current global governance mechanisms and for promoting coherent, data-driven approaches to sustainable development.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030063

Authors: Georgios Ampatzidis Alexandros Amprazis

The term “plant awareness disparity”, also referred to as “lack of plant awareness”, describes a tendency for individuals to overlook and underestimate plants, especially compared to animals. This phenomenon is still referred to in parts of the literature as “plant blindness”, a term increasingly replaced due to its ableist connotations, which was introduced to capture the idea that people often fail to notice plants in their surroundings or recognize their significance for environmental sustainability and human well-being. Research has shown that this lack of awareness manifests in several interconnected ways, including: (a) failure to notice plants in everyday environments, (b) limited understanding of fundamental concepts in plant biology and ecology, (c) a tendency to undervalue or misunderstand the unique biological features of plants—such as their growth patterns, physiological processes, and adaptive strategies—and (d) the perception of plants as less complex than or inferior to animals. Plant awareness disparity has been linked to multiple contributing factors, including evolutionary, biological and educational factors. These influences reinforce anthropocentric and zoocentric views of nature, shaping how individuals conceptualize living organisms and their relative importance. In this entry, we trace the historical evolution of the concept from plant blindness to lack of plant awareness, examine the cognitive, evolutionary, and educational factors that contribute to its persistence, and discuss its broader implications for education and sustainability.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030062

Authors: Marc Bouzas Sabater

Imitative coinage is understood to be any currency issued outside of the official known coin series. This currency could have been issued by individuals or state agents, and its main function was not profit, but rather it responded to currency shortages and acted as a currency of necessity. It must be distinguished from the currency itself, which had a lucrative intent on the part of the issuers. Coin imitation was a phenomenon that occurred during various chronological periods throughout the Roman Imperial era, essentially linked to historical events that caused a monetary shortage. This refers to a phenomenon where coinage not issued by the official authority was introduced into circulation and utilized in commercial exchanges of various kinds, a fact that can be demonstrated archaeologically. Imitative coinage can be detected through detailed numismatic studies, revealing variability in stylistic elements, as well as physical characteristics (such as weight or diameter) when compared to the official issue. Coin imitation should not be confused with monetary counterfeiting, as its intention was not to profit the unofficial issuer, but rather to facilitate daily commercial exchanges. Even so, the characteristics of both can be similar in some cases, which can make it difficult to assign them to one type or the other. The imitative pieces, primarily in bronze types though not limited to them, played a highly significant role in maintaining Roman economic systems during periods of decline in official currency.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030061

Authors: Beryl Exley Kylie Zee Bradfield Danielle H. Heinrichs Sonja Clancy

This Systematic Quantitative Literature Review (SQLR) examines instructional content (the what) and instructional strategies (the how) that contribute to overall reading performance for students in mainstream English-speaking primary classes. Drawing on 163 peer-reviewed studies published over four and a half decades, the authors examine instructional content and strategies aligned with six interrelated foundational elements of reading development: phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, and oral language. In response to the proliferation of reading research and the limitations of narrative reviews, the five iterative phases of the SQLR method enable rigorous selection, coding, and synthesis of studies reporting quantitative evidence of the contribution of instructional content and strategies to students’ overall reading performance. The second part of the paper focuses on phonics instruction, an element of the teaching of reading central to ongoing public, educational, and political debate. The authors identify significant variation in terms of the scale, duration, and year-levels of the reported research, and foreground the complex roles of teacher professional learning, teachers’ pedagogical decision-making, and implementation fidelity in shaping the research projects. The paper finishes by synthesizing evidence that concludes that while phonics instruction can contribute to overall reading performance, its effects are variable and contingent on specific instructional and contextual conditions.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030060

Authors: Ali Cheshmehzangi

“Sustainable Built Environments at the Climate–Health Nexus” refers to the planning and administration of metropolitan areas that tackle the interconnected problems of public health, climate change, and increasing heat hazards. By highlighting tactics that lessen urban heat islands, increase resilience, and advance equity, it establishes the built environment as a crucial link between environmental stresses and the welfare of multicultural urban communities. With an emphasis on how urban heat increases health risks and how design might act as a mediator between climate pressures and human well-being, this article explores the relationship between climate and health within the sustainable built environment. It criticizes the enduring “delusions of sustainable architecture”, regarded as metric substitution, which overlook fair health results in favour of sustainability being reduced to certification or spectacle. In this paper, “delusions” refer to two recurring patterns: (1) metric substitution, where carbon/energy performance is treated as a proxy for health protection, and (2) spectacle substitution, where iconic projects stand in for systemic heat-risk reduction. Through a critical examination of Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay and Abu Dhabi’s Masdar City, the conversation highlights the benefits and drawbacks of landmark sustainability initiatives. These programs highlight the risks of selected resilience, elitism, and dependence on resource-intensive technologies, even as they show technological creativity in lowering thermal stress and establishing microclimatic comfort. The study makes the case for a shift in the sustainable built environment toward design that is systemic, equitable, and health-centred. Including public health outcomes in sustainability measurements, giving everyday resilience precedence over showcase projects, and including governance, equity, and cultural transformation in planning frameworks are all highlighted in the recommendations. The climate–health nexus is used here as an evaluative lens to test whether sustainable built-environment interventions measurably reduce heat exposure and health risk, particularly for vulnerable groups. In a moment of increasing climatic stress, the conclusion urges shedding illusions and making sustainability a lived condition of justice, dignity, and resilience.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030059

Authors: Robert Colson Sapp Jeffery A. Secrest

This entry surveys the role of extra dimensions in Newtonian quantum cosmology, with particular emphasis on large, compactified, and warped dimensional geometries and their impact on the Newtonian potential in the early universe. The discussion begins with a review of Kaluza–Klein type toy models, followed by models with large extra dimensions in which gravity propagates into a higher-dimensional bulk, producing Yukawa-like modifications to the inverse-square law at submillimeter scales. Compactification schemes on toroidal and spherical dimensions are then examined, yielding the spectrum of Kaluza–Klein modes and quantifying their corrections to the Newtonian potential. Warped extra dimensions of the Randall–Sundrum type are also considered, in which a warp factor dimension is introduced; the resulting modifications to the Newtonian interaction in quantum-corrected cosmological settings are discussed in detail.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030058

Authors: Salem G. Alshahrani Mohammed R. Qader Fatema A. Albalooshi

Ferroresonance is a nonlinear phenomenon in power systems capable of producing irregular oscillations and severe overvoltages that threaten transformers, voltage transformers, cables, and associated equipment. This paper presents a structured comprehensive review of ferroresonance detection and mitigation techniques reported up to 2025, with particular emphasis on artificial intelligence (AI)-based approaches published during the last five years. A systematic literature search was conducted across IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using predefined ferroresonance- and AI-related keywords. Eligible studies were screened using explicit inclusion criteria requiring demonstrated ferroresonance relevance. Numerical modeling approaches, electromagnetic transient tools, ferroresonance modes, and mitigation strategies are synthesized, followed by a critical evaluation of machine learning, deep learning, fuzzy logic, evolutionary algorithms, and hybrid intelligent frameworks. Particular emphasis is placed on signal preprocessing, data representation, real-time protection constraints, and cross-topology robustness. The review identifies key research gaps, including the scarcity of benchmark datasets, limited validation under realistic network variability, and the absence of standardized evaluation methodologies. While this work is presented as a structured comprehensive review, PRISMA-inspired screening principles were applied to enhance transparency and reproducibility. Current evidence indicates that hybrid approaches combining physics-informed preprocessing—particularly wavelet-based feature extraction—with lightweight neural classifiers offer the most practical pathway for relay-grade ferroresonance protection in modern smart grids.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030057

Authors: Danila Aita

The concept of ‘thrust line’ has its roots in historical contributions that laid the foundation for the development of modern tools useful for the limit analysis of masonry arches and vaults. This concept can be traced back to two different, but related, notions: ‘line of resistance’ and ‘line of pressure’. In this paper, both historical contributions and recent developments of the thrust line method will be discussed with a focus on those formulations which take into account the material’s properties, in particular compressive strength.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030056

Authors: Kouider Mokhtari Nirmal Ghimire

This entry presents a conceptual approach for how artificial intelligence (AI) can be used to support high school and college students’ reading comprehension of complex texts across disciplines, using the Revised Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI-R), as an organizing framework. Drawing on research in literacy, learning sciences, and educational technology, the entry conceptualizes AI tools as potential metacognitive supports that can assist learners in planning, monitoring, and evaluating reading. At the same time, it distinguishes between AI use that risks promoting cognitive outsourcing, particularly when tools replace rather than support readers’ active regulation of meaning-making. The entry emphasizes the importance of instructional design and teacher mediation in aligning AI-supported reading practices with established models of metacognitive strategy use. Central to this discourse is the distinction between cognitive scaffolding, using AI to support and extend students’ strategic engagement within their zone of proximal development, and cognitive outsourcing, using AI to bypass cognitive effort entirely, thereby undermining active meaning-making. A distinctive feature of this entry is its use of MARSI-R not only as an assessment instrument but also as a design heuristic for structuring AI-supported reading interactions. By mapping AI affordances onto MARSI-R’s three strategy dimensions, the entry provides a conceptual bridge between established metacognitive theory and the practical design of AI-enhanced reading environments. This framing distinguishes the present contribution from prior work that treats AI tools and metacognitive frameworks as separate domains. Using MARSI-R’s dimensions of Global, Problem-Solving, and Support reading strategies, this entry describes how AI may provide personalized prompts and feedback that encourage strategic engagement with texts in STEM, the humanities, and social sciences. Illustrative classroom examples and research findings are used to highlight AI’s potential to support students in becoming “architects of their own understanding,” while also addressing ethical considerations such as overreliance on automated summaries and data privacy concerns. This entry offers a practical and theoretically grounded roadmap for integrating AI to support thoughtful, reflective reading across disciplines.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030055

Authors: James C. L. Chow

Hybrid artificial intelligence (AI) and Monte Carlo (MC) methods for radiotherapy dose calculation refer to computational approaches that integrate machine learning models with physics-based MC simulation to achieve both fast and accurate estimation of radiation dose distributions. These methods use AI to approximate complex MC dose calculations with greatly reduced computation time, while retaining MC simulation as the standard for physical fidelity and validation. The hybrid strategy supports real-time or near-real-time dose evaluation, enables adaptive treatment workflows, and allows accurate modeling of photon and electron beams in heterogeneous patient anatomy. By combining the strengths of data-driven prediction and physics-based simulation, hybrid AI and MC methods provide a pathway toward efficient and high-precision dose calculation in modern radiotherapy.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030054

Authors: Johannes Scherling

Victimhood in media discourse refers to how individuals or groups subjected to harm are represented and made visible to the public. These representations shape whether audiences respond with empathy or emotional distance, in particular as it pertains to mass violence events such as wars. News texts can humanize suffering by providing personal detail, evocative language, and contextual depth; or they can neutralize it through detached, fact-focused reporting. The extent to which people are perceived as “worthy victims” depends not only on the words and images chosen but also on the surrounding narrative—whether the event is framed as intentional harm or an unfortunate incident, whether victims are named and individualized or rendered as anonymous masses. In this way, media reporting does not merely record suffering but actively constructs hierarchies of victimhood, influencing who appears deserving of compassion and whose suffering remains invisible or muted.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030053

Authors: Vassilis Zakopoulos Panagiota Xanthopoulou

This study examines the evolution of qualitative research in the Social Sciences and Arts & Humanities over time through an extensive bibliometric analysis of 15,115 publications indexed in Scopus between 1985 and 2026. This research maps the scope of the field, the most prevalent methodologies, types of publications, linguistic distribution, and geographical origin of the works. Simultaneously, it correlates qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methodologies, highlighting the tensions, differences, and synergies between them. Using PRISMA-guided selection and bibliometric techniques, the analysis revealed a gradual and steady increase in qualitative research over the last decade. In the Arts and Humanities, there is a particular emphasis on narrative research, discourse analysis, and ethnography, while in the Social Sciences, qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methodologies coexist more evenly, with case studies and semi-structured interviews being used extremely frequently. Analysis of the document types revealed the predominance of scientific articles (over 85%), with English being the main language of publication. In terms of geographical distribution, the US and the UK are the strongest producers of qualitative knowledge, with Australia and Canada contributing significantly and a gradual strengthening of the participation of research communities from Latin America and Asia. The data show that publications referring to qualitative and mixed methodologies demonstrate comparatively higher citation visibility within the analyzed corpus, particularly in education, culture, and public policy. The findings indicate that the qualitative approach continues to play a key role in understanding the complex and lived dimensions of human experience, while opportunities for more integrated hybrid methodological frameworks will emerge in the future—both within individual scientific fields and in their interconnections. This study provides one of the largest bibliometric mappings of qualitative research internationally and systematically clarifies how the qualitative tradition differs between the Social Sciences and the Arts & Humanities. The findings can be used for evidence-based curriculum design, targeted development of research collaborations, and formulation of publication policies that enhance the visibility and influence of qualitative research.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6030052

Authors: Giorgio Francesco Arcodia Wen Lu

Sinitic, often referred to simply as ‘Chinese’, is a well-differentiated major branch of the Sino-Tibetan family, further divided into ten commonly recognized groups (Mandarin, Jin, Wu, Gan, Xiang, Hui, Hakka, Yue, Min, and Pinghua), identified mainly on the basis of phonological criteria. Sinitic as a whole stands out for being typologically quite distant from the rest of Sino-Tibetan (i.e., the so-called ‘Tibeto-Burman’ languages). Sinitic languages overwhelmingly possess verb-medial basic constituent order and isolating/analytic morphology, while Tibeto-Burman languages are dominantly verb-final and exhibit more complex and varied morphological profiles. Moreover, the Sinitic languages themselves show a considerable degree of internal variation, involving aspects such as word order, morphology, and grammaticalization patterns, among others. The development of Sinitic has often been driven by contact, both within the family and with unrelated (non-Sinitic) languages. For instance, Northern Sinitic shows ‘Altaic’ features due to contact with Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic languages, while Southern Sinitic is closer to the Mainland Southeast Asian areal type due to contact with Tai-Kadai, Hmong-Mien, and Mon-Khmer. We also find Sinitic varieties in the Northwest possessing basic verb-final order and postposed markers of case and evidentiality, again due to contact (with Mongolic and Tibetic), as well as other areas of convergence, which contribute to the complexity of the typology of Sinitic.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020051

Authors: Alexandros A. Lavdas

The Neuroaesthetics-informed approach to the urban environment examines how the sensory properties of buildings, streets, and public spaces are processed by the human brain, and how this processing affects health, well-being, and behavior. Drawing on neuroscience, psychology, and architectural research, it examines how attributes such as organized visual complexity, fractal structure, materiality, color, light, scale, and spatial configuration shape perceptual fluency, stress regulation, affective states, cognition, and even influence social interaction in cities. The literature discussed was identified through targeted searches of peer-reviewed journals in neuroscience, psychology, architecture, urban design and public health, with emphasis on studies examining perceptual processing, affective responses, psychophysiological indicators, and health-related proxies in relation to environmental form, as opposed to general environmental health work. Practical applications are discussed.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020050

Authors: Tetiana Paientko Andrii Buriachenko

Fintech populism is an analytical and metaphorical concept that describes a pattern of digital financial participation. In this pattern, financial technologies are framed as enabling broad, direct engagement with financial systems. This engagement is often facilitated by simplified, user-centered, highly accessible digital interfaces. It does not refer to a political ideology but rather denotes a mode of participation characterized by mass accessibility, immediacy, and symbolic inclusion, which are all enabled by fintech platforms. In this context, fintech populism describes how digital finance expands participation through mobile applications, platform-based investing, and decentralized financial technologies. Participation is primarily enacted through technologically structured interactions. Engagement is facilitated via algorithms, interfaces, and platform rules, which shape how users access financial services and interpret financial information. Fintech populism is used descriptively to highlight the tension between increased access and users’ limited ability to influence the governance, design, or accountability structures of digital financial systems. As an analytical term, fintech populism highlights the transformation of financial participation from institution-based mechanisms to platform-based interactions. In this model, visibility and engagement increase without implying corresponding changes in decision-making authority or control.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020049

Authors: Dieter Bögenhold Ksenija Popović

Migration is often viewed through an economic lens, but it also drives a profound transfer of intangible resources, including ideas, attitudes, beliefs, practices, values, and norms. This review examines the emerging literature on social remittances across post-transition economies. These countries are characterized by their shift from socialist planning to market-oriented systems. Based on an analysis of twenty-six publications, this literature review examines the mechanisms through which intangible resources are acquired, transferred, and implemented among migrants, their communities of origin, and even their destination societies. The evidence reveals that migrants often act as agents of change, transferring knowledge and practices that influence areas from entrepreneurship and politics to science, gender norms, and everyday life. Future research should analyze the social networks, structural constraints, and digital tools that facilitate these knowledge transfers across the skill spectrum. Such work is important for developing holistic policies that can leverage the social remittances of diverse migrant groups as a sustained resource for social innovation and development in evolving economies.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020048

Authors: Michele Filippo Fontefrancesco Martina Pili

Rural tourism is defined as a tourism activity in which the visitor’s experience is linked to agricultural activities, rural lifestyles, and traditional cultures. In many geographical contexts, especially in Europe, because the rural economy is so deeply tied to family farming, this form of tourism is referred to as “agritourism”, even though agrotourism is a specific subset of rural tourism defined by the integration of tourism with a working farm or agricultural operation. The entry delineates the transformative dynamics of rural tourism in the context of global shifts towards personalized, experiential travel. It examines how contemporary tourists increasingly seek authentic and immersive experiences as a response to the superficiality of mass tourism. This trend leads travellers to engage deeply with local cultures, thereby fostering connections with community life and prioritizing sustainability. Amidst challenges such as environmental degradation and overtourism, rural tourism emerges as a viable alternative, offering unique, less-congested destinations that cater to travellers’ desire for exclusivity and genuine discovery. The paper traces the historical evolution of rural tourism from its European origins in mid-20th-century agricultural practices to its current status as a vital component of rural development strategies. Through a comparative analysis of two distinct regional scenarios, Europe and Oceania, this article elucidates how local contexts shape tourism practices. The analysis highlights the pivotal role of gastronomy in enriching tourist experiences and emphasizes the need for digital literacy and eco-effectiveness in rural tourism operations. Although the entry does not provide a comprehensive global perspective on rural tourism or a quantitative environmental account of the sector’s impact, it ultimately conveys that rural tourism is a critical engine of regional vitality and sustainability, illustrating the juxtaposition of historical roots and contemporary trends that define this evolving sector.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020047

Authors: Thorsten Schröter

Translation primarily refers to interlingual translation here, i.e., the transfer of texts (broadly understood) between distinct languages. Wordplay is used synonymously with puns, while language-play is a broader concept referring to the intentional manipulation of linguistic elements for special effects. Language-play thus includes, but is not limited to, wordplay. This paper provides an overview of the issues involved in the translation of language-play, including wordplay. To this end, definitions, categories, and arguments related to translation on the one hand, and to word- as well as language-play on the other, are presented. This includes an introduction to different modes, purposes, and challenges of translation, as well as a discussion of the possible forms, functions, and effects of language-play, partly in relation to humour. Based on this groundwork, claims and findings related to the combination of the fields, i.e., the translation of word- and language-play, will be summarized. The paper concludes with an attempt at placing word- and language-play translation into a broader context, including societal and educational concerns, as well as the latest changes affecting the translation profession.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020046

Authors: Luca Mirabelli Edoardo Bianco

This entry paper explores the multifaceted oral health crisis in the Pacific island nation of Tuvalu, a remote archipelago of nine coral atolls. It delves into the severe burden of oral diseases, such as early childhood caries (ECC) and periodontitis, which are rampant within its population of just over 11,000. The analysis investigates the primary drivers of this crisis, including a significant dietary transition towards imported, ultra-processed foods, compounded by profound socioeconomic challenges and a lack of public health literacy. The paper critically examines the systemic failures of the national healthcare system, characterized by the absence of a formal oral health policy and a critically inadequate dental workforce, which forces residents to seek complex care abroad. Furthermore, it highlights how extreme geographic isolation and severely limited air connectivity function as direct barriers to accessing essential services, rendering specialized treatments like orthodontics and effective management of dental emergencies virtually impossible. In response to these challenges, the paper discusses innovative, forward-looking solutions, including the potential of teledentistry to bridge service gaps, the strategic development of regional medical or dental hubs in proximity to the biggest airports to centralize care, and the necessity of integrating oral health into broader strategies for economic development and climate resilience.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020045

Authors: Georgiana Camelia Stănescu

Artificial intelligence is increasingly being used in all branches of the media system and has transformed the way specialists in this field work in recent years. Currently, applications of artificial intelligence are used across a range of processes involved in the production, editing, distribution, and consumption of media content. These include technologies such as generative chatbots, automated transcription, writing, translation, and editing tools, as well as applications for image and video creation. All of these types of applications have taken over a significant portion of the traditional activities carried out by media professionals. From a technological point of view, these uses primarily rely on machine learning, natural language processing, and computer vision techniques, complemented by generative models that automatically analyze, generate, and interpret text, sound, and images. Although these technologies contribute to increased efficiency, faster work, and reduced operating costs, they also pose significant risks, particularly regarding the spread of false information. From a theoretical perspective, artificial intelligence goes beyond the status of a technological tool, being conceptualized as a communicational actor that actively intervenes in the generation, structuring, and circulation of messages, influencing the relationships between producers, content, and audiences in the current media environment.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020044

Authors: Stefano Toderi Guido Sarchielli

The career anchor (CA) is a metaphor created by Edgar Schein to illustrate the role of patterns of self-perceived talents, motives, and values in guiding, stabilizing (i.e., anchoring), and integrating a person’s work career. With the early years of work experience, this pattern tends to stabilize into one of the possible CAs and plays two main roles: guiding the selection of specific occupations and work environments; shaping individual reactions to the actual occupation and work environment. Since Schein’s initial conceptualization, theoretical refinements have been proposed, suggesting that CAs can change over time and that multiple CAs can coexist. Although substantial evidence supports the theory’s key predictions, the available literature appears fragmented, with a primary focus on descriptive concerns. Actual measurement issues also limit the development of theoretical knowledge. This entry provides an updated overview of the central predictions related to CAs, aiming at promoting greater integration and coherence in research and practice.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020043

Authors: Maria Chaitidou Giorgos Peikos

The concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) was introduced by Shulman in 1986 as a distinctive form of teacher knowledge that transcends mere content expertise or general pedagogical skills. Shulman described PCK as “the amalgam of content and pedagogy” that distinguishes the experienced teacher from the content specialist. This conceptualization revolutionized research on teacher knowledge by highlighting the importance of understanding how teachers transform subject matter into forms that are pedagogically sound and accessible to diverse learners. Since Shulman’s seminal work, numerous PCK models have been developed, leading to the Consensus Model of PCK published in 2015 and, subsequently, the Refined Consensus Model of PCK in 2019. Both frameworks move the field beyond static views of teacher knowledge and emphasize the recursive processes through which teachers plan, teach, reflect, and reshape their professional knowledge. Over four decades of PCK research, PCK models have differed in their epistemological grounding, as well as in the components used to represent the structure of the PCK construct.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020042

Authors: Anna K. Zarkada

Value is the result of the combined, conscious, and creative actions of caring, which promote sustainable prosperity. Despite its centrality in marketing theory, value is treated in the literature as a self-evident, abstract term denoting concepts as diverse as the desire to acquire goods or enjoy services, the benefits derived from using a product, the price of an object, or a customer’s contribution to business profits. This approach leads to amoral marketing decision-making focused on extracting value from stakeholders and accumulating it in the form of shareholder wealth. In this framework, the negative consequences of marketing actions for society and the natural environment are simply dismissed as externalities. This is not sustainable as it degrades the environment and increases wealth and human welfare disparities between individuals, groups, and societies. Drawing on conceptualisations of value from the fields of philosophy, semiotics, and economics, value is here defined as the result of the combined, conscious, and creative actions of caring which promote sustainable prosperity. As such, value is understood to be co-created by the interactions of various stakeholders and positioned as the link between individuals, companies, markets, society, and the natural environment. Marketing theory has traditionally viewed value creation and exchange as the result of dyadic interactions. The socioeconomic and technological milieu of the 21st century, however, creates a business ecosystem characterised by digitalisation, interconnectivity, and decentralisation which means that, the number of participants in value co-creation networks is increasing and potentially tending towards infinity. Consequently, marketing is reconceptualised as the values-driven mechanism for value formation, valuation, symbolism, exchange facilitation, and integration of the resources required for value co-creation and distribution aiming at contributing to sustainable prosperity. Virtuous marketers and mindful marketing practice can ensure the optimal use of resources and the maximisation and equitable distribution of welfare in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to continue to generate and enjoy value. Thus, by placing value at the centre of the business ecosystem, marketing contributes to sustainable prosperity.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020041

Authors: Wenzhuo Zhang Anatoly Svidzinsky

Schrödinger’s path to the quantum mechanical wave equation was heuristic and guided more by physical intuition than formal deduction. Here we derive the Schrödinger equation for the particle’s wave function Ψ, assuming that the complex function Ψ(t,r→) has a meaning of the probability amplitude to find the particle at time t at point r→ and the relations E=ℏω, p→=ℏk→ expressing particle energy and momentum in terms of the frequency and wave vector of the associated probability wave.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020040

Authors: Tyler N. Livingston Peter O. Rerick

The Sexual Intent Perceptions Questionnaire (SIP-Q) is a 25-item instrument designed to measure interpretations of women’s sexual willingness communicated via various behaviors. The instrument demonstrates high internal consistency using a 7-point Likert-type scale. Applications of the SIP-Q include assessing observers’ tendency to overperceive women’s sexual interest, testing the effects of drive states such as sexual arousal and feelings of power on ratings of women’s sexual interest, and exploring how variables such as physical attractiveness and actor–observer positionality may be associated with sexual perceptions. Studies employing the SIP-Q revealed that sexual arousal tends to increase ratings of sexual willingness, particularly among single men, and that women’s physical attractiveness can enhance these perceptions, especially when the man himself is the recipient of the woman’s behavior. The instrument is beneficial for examining sources of sexual miscommunication.

Encyclopedia doi: 10.3390/encyclopedia6020039

Authors: Georgios Polydoros Alexandros-Stamatios Antoniou Charis Polydoros

Inclusive AI-mediated mathematics education for students with learning difficulties refers to a human-centered approach to mathematics teaching and learning that uses artificial intelligence (AI), adaptive technologies, and data-rich environments to support learners who experience persistent challenges in mathematics. These challenges may take the form of a formally identified developmental learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, broader learning difficulties, low and unstable achievement, irregular engagement, or heightened mathematics anxiety that places students at risk of disengagement and poor long-term outcomes. This approach integrates early screening, personalized instruction, and affect-aware support to address both cognitive difficulties and the emotional burden associated with mathematics anxiety. Situated within digitally augmented schools, homes, and community spaces typical of smart cities, it seeks to reduce stress and anxiety, prevent the reproduction of educational inequalities, and promote equitable participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) pathways. It emphasizes Universal Design for Learning (UDL), ethical and transparent use of learner data, and sustained collaboration among teachers, families, technologists, urban planners, and policy-makers across micro (individual), meso (school and community), and macro (urban and policy) levels. Crucially, AI functions as decision support rather than replacement of pedagogical judgment, with teachers maintaining human-in-the-loop oversight and responsibility for inclusive instructional decisions. Where learner data include fine-grained logs or affect-related indicators, data minimization, clear purpose limitation, and child- and family-friendly transparency are essential. Implementation should also consider feasibility and sustainability, including staff capacity and resource constraints, so that inclusive benefits do not depend on high-cost infrastructures.