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Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis

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A Special Issue of Crystals (ISSN 2073-4352) belonging to the section "Mineralogical Crystallography and Biomineralization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 9303

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Editors

Dr. Ye Yuan

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Guest Editor

School of Gemology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: gemology; gem mineralogy; gem deposits; optical spectroscopy; gemstone treatment

Prof. Dr. Guanghai Shi

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Guest Editor

State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
Interests: mineralogy; petrology; ore deposits; U-Pb geochronology gemmology; microstructures
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Dr. Fei Liu

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Guest Editor

Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Xicheng District, Beijing, China
Interests: diamond-hosted in ophiolite and kimberlite; gem geology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The field of gemology is undergoing a rapid transformation, evolving from classical mineralogical observation into a data-driven, high-precision science. The growing complexity of the gemstone market—driven by the emergence of novel synthetic materials, sophisticated enhancement treatments, and the critical need for geographic origin traceability—requires equally advanced analytical solutions.

This Special Issue, “Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis”, aims to highlight the intersection of fundamental mineralogy and cutting-edge technology. We seek to gather research that not only explore the geological genesis and physical properties of gem materials but also pioneer the application of digitization and artificial intelligence in the industry.

We invite researchers to contribute original papers and reviews covering, but not limited to, the following themes:

Advanced Characterization: Application of modern spectroscopic (Raman, FTIR, PL, and UV-Vis) and chemical (LA-ICP-MS, EDXRF, and LIBS) techniques in gem identification.
Genesis and Traceability: Research on geological formation, inclusion analysis, and chemical fingerprinting to determine geographic origin.
Synthetics and Treatments: Detection mechanisms for laboratory-grown gems and novel enhancement processes (e.g., heat treatment, irradiation, and diffusion).
Digitalization and Intelligence: The implementation of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning algorithms, and big data analysis in gemstone grading, spectral matching, and automated screening.
New Discoveries: Mineralogical studies of rare gem varieties and characterization of new deposits.

This issue aspires to present a comprehensive overview of how modern technology is reshaping our understanding and evaluation of gemstones.

Dr. Ye Yuan
Prof. Dr. Guanghai Shi
Dr. Fei Liu
Guest Editors

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Keywords

gemology
mineralogy
geographic-origin determination
spectroscopy
synthetic gemstones
treatment detection
artificial intelligence (AI) in gemology
digitalization
non-destructive testing

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 26761 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genesis of Gem-Quality Peridot from Sapat, Pakistan: Constraints from Gemmology, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry

by Bijie Peng, Mingyue He, Ning Wang and Jingyi Xu

Crystals 2026, 16(9), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16090557 - 27 Aug 2026

Viewed by 360

Abstract

Pakistan is recognized as a notable source of gem-quality peridot, which is renowned internationally for its attractive yellowish-green to light greenish-yellow color and large crystal size. This paper elucidates the petrogenesis of Pakistani peridot based on coupled gemological, mineralogical, and geochemical evidence. Pakistani peridot is commonly associated with serpentine, magnetite, and minor talc, occurring within pockets and veins of serpentinized dunite. The most common inclusions identified in peridot include ludwigite, magnetite, serpentine, and brucite. Among these, ludwigite inclusions serve as a significant indicator for geographic origin determination. Pakistani peridot exhibits significant internal compositional heterogeneity, with forsterite (Fo) contents ranging from 88 to 96. Trace element analyses show that Pakistani peridot is enriched in incompatible elements such as boron and lithium. The peridot samples yield δ¹⁸O compositions spanning 3.94‰–6.17‰, averaging 5.04 ± 0.63‰. Isotopic signature confirms a mantle-derived signature and precludes significant involvement of crustal-derived fluids. The mineral composition and geochemical characteristics, combined with the geological setting, suggest that the Pakistani gem-quality peridot precipitated from B- and CO₂-rich subduction-derived hydrothermal fluids, which migrated along extensional fractures within the highly permeable dunites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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19 pages, 4762 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coloration and Genesis of Calcite-Dominated Jade from Xinjiang, China: Evidence from Spectroscopy, U-Pb Dating, and C-O Isotope

by Yunxi Zhu, Yi Zhao, Siying Li, Zheyi Zhao and Gexue Zhao

Crystals 2026, 16(8), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16080533 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 344

Abstract

Carbonate jade has emerged as a recently recognized commercial variety in the Chinese gemstone market. Systematic gemological and mineralogical investigations on carbonate jade, however, remain very scarce. Three Xinjiang calcite-dominated jade samples were investigated by using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy, microbeam X-ray fluorescence (Micro-XRF) spectrometry, trace element analysis, in situ U-Pb dating, and C-O isotope analysis. The orange-red color originates from staining by hematite and magnetite inclusions, while the green color is produced by d-d electronic transitions of lattice-bound Fe³⁺ and Mn²⁺. The provenance comparison reveals systematic differences in trace element compositions between the Xinjiang carbonate jade and Pakistani Lvwen stone: the Xinjiang samples are characterized by extremely low Cu and Sr contents, whereas the Pakistani Lvwen stone has high Cu, Mn and Sr contents, and low Fe content. The U-Pb age obtained for the Xinjiang carbonate jade sample coincides with a Late Cretaceous rapid cooling event. Enriched light rare earth element (LREE) and C-O isotope (δ¹³C_V-PDB = −1.19–2.21‰, δ¹⁸O_V-SMOW = 15.00–20.01‰) signatures indicate that the carbonate-precipitating fluids were derived from marine carbonate wall rocks. These findings provide new mineralogical and geochemical constraints on the coloration mechanism, provenance, and fluid evolution of carbonate jade from Xinjiang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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13 pages, 2613 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spectroscopic Characteristics of Blue Calcite and the Origin of Its Coloration and Luminescence

by Jingying Lv, Qingfeng Guo, Shuo Ran and Xin Zhang

Crystals 2026, 16(8), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16080523 - 9 Aug 2026

Viewed by 586

Abstract

Natural blue calcite is relatively rare, and its coloration and luminescence mechanisms have not been systematically established. In this study, four natural blue calcite samples from China were comprehensively characterized using mineralogical testing, X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), photoluminescence (PL), and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). XRD confirms single-phase trigonal calcite (space group R-3c). EPMA detects minor Mg, Fe, Cu, and Sr, with smaller-radius Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺, and Cu²⁺ being the main contributors to the contraction through isomorphous substitution for Ca²⁺. UV-Vis spectra show characteristic absorptions at 270 nm and 340 nm related to lattice defects with a broad emission band centered at 480 nm in the PL spectra. EPR detects a CO₂⁻ radical center (g = 2.003), and the same signal is also observed in the colorless sample. The colorless sample also contains the same CO₂⁻ radicals, indicating that these radicals alone do not account for the blue coloration. A broad 480 nm blue-violet fluorescence band is observed in the four blue samples under 405 nm excitation. These findings provide a spectroscopic and crystallographic basis for distinguishing natural blue calcite from analogous materials and for understanding the origin of its color and luminescence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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20 pages, 12098 KB

Open AccessArticle

Provenance and Genesis of Gem-Quality Rutile Revealed by Integrated Spectroscopic, Geochemical, and U-Pb Geochronological Signatures

by Junting Mu, Siying Li, Yi Zhao, Gexue Zhao and Zheyi Zhao

Crystals 2026, 16(8), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16080519 - 6 Aug 2026

Viewed by 347

Abstract

Rutile is an oxide mineral widely distributed in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks; it crystallizes in the tetragonal system. Trace-element abundances in rutile are influenced by the host-rock composition, redox conditions and crystallization history. Rutile exhibits high refractive index, strong dispersion, and adamantine luster. Its enrichment in high field strength elements (HFSEs) can be used to trace its formation environment. Owing to its inclusion-poor, compositionally uniform characteristics, rutile is particularly well-suited to in situ U-Pb geochronology. By integrating spectroscopic analysis, trace-element geochemistry, and U-Pb geochronology, this study systematically characterizes nine rutile samples from Madagascar, Pakistan, and Brazil, establishing a multi-dimensional scheme for origin discrimination. Spectroscopic analyses reveal that the infrared reflection band near 670 cm⁻¹ varies systematically with provenance. It appears as a broad, strong band in Madagascar samples, becomes weaker and narrower in Brazilian samples, and is partially absent in Pakistani samples. The Eg Raman mode of Brazilian rutile is slightly left-shifted and exhibits lower intensity, indicating a distinct lattice strain state. Analyzed samples occupy well-separated compositional fields on Nb–V, V–Ta, Zr–Hf and Nb–Ta binary variation plots. Specifically, Pakistani samples are characterized by high Nb and Ta contents and relatively lower V contents than the Brazilian and Madagascar samples. Madagascar samples show pronounced W enrichment and very low Cr. Brazilian samples display elevated Cr, V, higher U contents and more radiogenic Pb isotope compositions. Zr–W systematics and Cr–Nb bivariate discrimination allow inference of geological genesis. The Madagascar rutile is of hydrothermal origin, whereas the Pakistani and Brazilian rutile are metamorphic, derived from felsic/pelitic and mafic protoliths, respectively. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb geochronology yields a lower-intercept age of 504 ± 13 Ma (MSWD = 1.1) for the Madagascar sample (MD-1). This concordant, low-common-Pb age corresponds to the Pan-African orogeny and suggests strong potential as an in-situ U-Pb dating reference material. The Brazilian and Pakistani samples yield lower-intercept ages of 486 ± 53 Ma and 36.8 ± 2.9 Ma, respectively. However, the larger data scatter precludes their use as reference materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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17 pages, 19481 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogical and Compositional Characteristics of Argentine Red–White Banded Rhodochrosite with Ca-Poor White Bands

by Luyan Jiang, Qingfeng Guo, Can Cui and Nannan Wang

Crystals 2026, 16(8), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16080516 - 5 Aug 2026

Viewed by 619

Abstract

Three commercial red–white banded rhodochrosite samples sold as Argentine “Rosa del Inca” material were investigated using conventional gemological observation, mineralogical analysis, micro-area chemical analysis, and spectroscopy. The red and white bands differ in color, transparency, and microstructure. However, both bands are mainly rhodochrosite. No evidence indicates that calcite, dolomite, or other Ca-bearing carbonate minerals are the main phases in the white bands. Representative EPMA analyses of LMK-02 show that the analyzed white-band points tend to contain slightly lower Mn and relatively higher Fe and Mg than the red-band points, while CaO is below the detection limit at all representative EPMA positions. Micro-XRF mapping of LMK-02 reveals only local and discontinuous enrichments of Ca and Zn; however, the mineralogical identity and occurrence mode of these enriched domains remain unresolved. Combined with the EPMA data, the XRD, FTIR, Raman, and UV–Vis results do not support marked Ca enrichment, extensive Ca substitution for Mn, or abundant Ca-bearing carbonate phases in the analyzed white bands of LMK-02. Instead, the results indicate Ca-poor compositional variation within rhodochrosite, with the representative EPMA data showing a descriptive tendency toward slightly lower MnO and relatively higher FeO and MgO contents in the analyzed white-band points. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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20 pages, 2708 KB

Open AccessArticle

Compositional Characterization and Color Genesis of Precious Coral Based on Multi-Spectroscopic Techniques

by Yushu Yang, Ying Guo, Zhe Hu and Jiayang Han

Crystals 2026, 16(6), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16060374 - 2 Jun 2026

Viewed by 753

Abstract

The color origin of precious coral, a highly valued biogenic polycrystalline gemstone, has long remained elusive. In this study, an integrated approach employing spectrophotometry, Raman, FTIR, and UV-Vis spectroscopy, coupled with Spearman correlation analysis, was utilized to investigate a color-graded series of precious coral samples ranging from white to red. The results demonstrate that the calcareous composition of the samples tested in our study consists exclusively of calcite. The actual chromophores are identified as a blend of multiple distinct polyene species, characterized by Raman shifts at 1126 and 1515 cm⁻¹, with density functional theory (DFT) calculations determining the number of conjugated (C=C) bonds in the polyene chain to be 10–11. Inherently exhibiting a red-orange hue, the progressive accumulation of these polyenes drives a systematic color transition from orange to red. Both absorption bands at 314 nm and 532 nm in the UV-Vis spectra are attributed to the polyene pigment molecules. Specifically, the broad 532 nm band is dominated by π-π* electronic transitions, while the 314 nm band likely arises from terminal benzene rings and their derivatives. As the pigment concentration increases, this band exhibits pronounced broadening and an increase in absorbance, accompanied by a redshift in the maximum absorption peak. This spectral evolution leads to an intensified absorption in the yellow-orange region, elucidating the intrinsic mechanism underlying the color transition of precious coral from orange to red with increasing pigment content. This work lays a solid foundation for the non-destructive identification of precious corals and future research on their color genesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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18 pages, 60393 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogical Characteristics of White Nephrite from Dikou, Fujian Province, Southeastern China

by Shuo Ran and Yingxin Liu

Crystals 2026, 16(5), 284; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16050284 - 24 Apr 2026

Viewed by 777

Abstract

Nephrite is a significant jade resource, and systematic investigation of its deposits contributes to regional metallogenic synthesis and exploration targeting. The recently discovered white nephrite deposit in the Dikou area, Fujian Province, remains inadequately characterized. This study presents a comprehensive mineralogical investigation employing polarizing microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, X-ray powder diffraction and laser Raman spectroscopy to elucidate the mineralogical and petrochemical characteristics of Dikou nephrite and constrain its genesis. The results demonstrate that tremolite constitutes the predominant mineral phase, accompanied by abundant diopside and quartz, with minor dolomite, prehnite, and apatite. Based on subtle compositional variations, tremolite can be categorized into two generations: early metasomatic Tr-I and late-stage Tr-II. All tremolite samples exhibit Fe-depleted, Mg-enriched composition with Mg# > 0.99. The mineral assemblage and textural relationships record multiple episodes of hydrothermal metasomatism. Integrated with the regional geological constraints, the deposit formation is genetically linked to the Neoproterozoic–Early Paleozoic ocean–continent transition of the South China Plate and is classified as D-type nephrite. The Dikou nephrite exhibits the mineral assemblage typical of dolomite-related deposits, displaying a distinctive felt-like fibrous texture that yields a homogeneous structure and superior aesthetic quality. Its Fe-depleted composition imparts a notably lighter coloration relative to D-type nephrite from other deposits. This study advances understanding of Dikou nephrite genesis, highlights the diversity of metallogenic environments in Fujian Province, and provides a theoretical framework for exploration of analogous deposits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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21 pages, 4825 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gemological Study of Black Nephrite from Dahua, Guangxi Province, China

by Mingying Cui, Mingyue He, Mei Yang, Bijie Peng and Shaokun Wu

Crystals 2026, 16(4), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16040220 - 25 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 977 | Correction

Abstract

Dahua in Guangxi is an important soft jade mining area in southern China. Despite this, research on the nephrite from this region, particularly on the coloring mechanism of black nephrite, remains limited. This study systematically investigates the gemological, mineralogical, and geochemical properties of black nephrite from Dahua. Petrographic analysis reveals that tremolite is the primary mineral, with clinochlore and apatite as associated minerals. Tremolite (SiO₂: 58.00 wt%; MgO: 24.75 wt%; CaO: 12.46 wt%) in Dahua nephrite is close to the theoretical values of tremolite. Chlorite thermometry indicates formation temperatures of 240 °C and 328 °C. Geochemical analysis of the samples shows enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs), flat heavy rare earth element (HREEs) patterns, and Ce and Eu anomalies. The Mg²⁺/(Mg²⁺ + Fe²⁺) ratio was below 0.06. In the c(Ca²⁺), c(Mg²⁺), and c(Fe²⁺ + Fe³⁺) ternary diagram, the amphibole plots close to the Dahua green nephrite, suggesting a similar genetic environment and supporting a contact metasomatic origin for the amphibole. Combined with the geological setting, mineralization was driven by hydrothermal fluids from diabase magma, which introduced Si and heat, with Ca and Mg being mobilized from the dolomitic limestone host rocks. These findings contribute to the understanding of nephrite formation in Dahua, distinguishing it from nephrite from other regions and providing a foundation for future studies on the geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of nephrite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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20 pages, 13437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation Between Crystalline Order, Micro-Morphology, and Thermal Stability in “Heijin” (Black Gold) Seal Stone from Changhua, China: A Pyrite-Bearing Dickite Aggregate

by Ye Yuan, Jingfu Yang, Shaokun Wu and Miao Shi

Crystals 2026, 16(3), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16030165 - 27 Feb 2026

Viewed by 543

Abstract

“Heijin” (the literal translation from Chinese being “Black Gold”) seal stone represents a unique variety of sulfur-rich, dickite-dominant jade, yet its mineralogical genesis and structural properties remain insufficiently characterized. This study utilizes a multi-analytical approach comprising polarized light microscopy, X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA), and Thermogravimetry and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TG-DSC) to investigate the phase composition, crystalline order, and thermal evolution of this material. The results demonstrate that “Heijin” stone is primarily composed of highly ordered 2M₁ dickite with a Hinckley index (HI) ranging from 0.92 to 1.50. Its distinctive black appearance originates from the disseminated distribution of micrometer-scale pyrite, which is accompanied by trace amounts of svanbergite. This aluminum phosphate–sulfate (APS) mineral serves as a critical indicator of high sulfur fugacity and acidic hydrothermal alteration environments. Furthermore, a significant correlation exists between the crystalline order of dickite, its micro-morphology, and its thermal stability. Samples characterized by high crystallinity (HI ≈ 1.50) exhibit well-developed, euhedral book-like aggregates and elevated dehydroxylation temperatures (T_m ≈ 665 °C), whereas samples with lower crystalline order correspond to fragmented microstructures and reduced thermal stability. This research defines the mineralogical identity of “Heijin” stone and provides a scientific basis for employing thermal analysis to evaluate the crystalline quality of dickite-based jade materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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21 pages, 7415 KB

Open AccessArticle

Jadeite from Guatemala: New Observations and Distinctions Among Lavender and Black Jade

by Mengxi Zhao, Bo Xu, Siyi Zhao, Yining Liu and Zitong Li

Crystals 2026, 16(2), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst16020130 - 11 Feb 2026

Viewed by 2422

Abstract

This study systematically investigates the mineralogical, spectral, and geochemical characteristics of Guatemalan lavender jadeite and black omphacite to elucidate their coloration mechanisms and genetic origins. Lavender samples are primarily composed of jadeite, which derives its color from synergistic effects involving Mn³⁺ and Fe²⁺-Ti⁴⁺ charge transfer (554–614 nm). In contrast, black samples are dominated by omphacite, which owes its dark hue to Cr³⁺ (670 nm) and Fe²⁺-Fe³⁺ charge transfer (857 nm). Chemically, lavender jadeite exhibits higher Na₂O and Al₂O₃, approaching the jadeite end-member composition, whereas black omphacite is enriched in CaO, MgO, and FeO. Trace element analyses reveal low overall abundances, with black omphacite showing synchronous LREE and HREE depletion forming a “bulge-shaped” pattern, while lavender jadeite displays N-MORB-like REE distributions. Guatemalan jadeites are distinguished from Myanmar counterparts by Y enrichment. The identification of graphite and CH₄ and CO₂ fluid inclusions indicates formation in an organic-rich reducing environment. Cathodoluminescence zoning and abundant fluid inclusions support a direct crystallization genesis from high-pressure fluids (P-type) in subduction zones. This study establishes key constraints for origin discrimination and genetic classification of Guatemalan lavender jadeite and black omphacite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Gem Crystals: Synthesis, Characterization, Genesis and Intelligent Analysis)

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