Behavioral Sciences

Editorial

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14 pages, 239 KB

Open AccessEditorial

The Many Pathways to Personal Growth: Contemporary Perspectives and Future Directions

by Madoka Kumashiro

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(9), 1692; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16091692 - 20 Sep 2026

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Abstract

Although philosophers and psychologists have pondered for centuries on what it means to pursue personal development and to live a good life, psychological research on personal growth remains broad and diverse. This Editorial introduces a Special Issue comprising 25 contributions to Experiences and [...] Read more.

Although philosophers and psychologists have pondered for centuries on what it means to pursue personal development and to live a good life, psychological research on personal growth remains broad and diverse. This Editorial introduces a Special Issue comprising 25 contributions to Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth. These diverse perspectives conceptualize growth as an aspect of eudaimonic well-being, an intentional process of self-change, a response to adversity, or a process facilitated by relationships and broader contexts. Growth may emerge through coping with adversity or through engagement with life opportunities, and its likelihood and consequences depend on individual characteristics, close relationships, and wider social and cultural environments. The Editorial synthesizes recent developments in the field, with special attention paid to the central role of interpersonal relationships, highlighting contributions from this Special Issue to the broader discussion surrounding personal growth. Future research directions are identified, including the need to prioritize greater conceptual and measurement precision, stronger longitudinal and causal evidence, closer attention to individual and contextual variation, and consideration of how the growing use of conversational AI for support and guidance may reshape how personal growth is pursued, experienced, and understood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

Research

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19 pages, 528 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sculpted by Love: Attachment Security and the Michelangelo Phenomenon

by Yiwen Gu, Madoka Kumashiro and Ximena B. Arriaga

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1237; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071237 - 21 Jul 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 722

Abstract

The Michelangelo phenomenon describes an interpersonal model of personal growth in which romantic partners affirm each other’s ideal selves, thereby enhancing their relational and personal well-being. The present study examined how attachment security relates to this process. Based on cross-sectional data from N [...] Read more.

The Michelangelo phenomenon describes an interpersonal model of personal growth in which romantic partners affirm each other’s ideal selves, thereby enhancing their relational and personal well-being. The present study examined how attachment security relates to this process. Based on cross-sectional data from N = 452 individuals in 258 couples, the results replicated prior work and provided new insights. Greater partner affirmation was associated with higher relationship quality, higher life satisfaction, and lower depression, but was not associated with general anxiety. Movement toward the ideal self mediated the links between partner affirmation and well-being outcomes. Importantly, attachment security (lower attachment anxiety and avoidance) was directly associated with greater partner affirmation and indirectly associated with greater well-being outcomes through partner affirmation and movement toward the ideal self. The effects were particularly robust for lower attachment anxiety, relative to lower attachment avoidance. The findings suggest that attachment security may allow individuals to better rely on close relationships to experience personal growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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19 pages, 512 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Humor Styles as Predictors of Post-Traumatic Growth Factors

by Gert Kruger

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071131 - 6 Jul 2026

Viewed by 388

Abstract

This study examined whether adaptive humor styles, affiliative and self-enhancing, predict the five dimensions of post-traumatic growth (PTG) in a sample of South African undergraduate students who had experienced trauma. A cross-sectional SEM design was used with a criterion sample of 194 South [...] Read more.

This study examined whether adaptive humor styles, affiliative and self-enhancing, predict the five dimensions of post-traumatic growth (PTG) in a sample of South African undergraduate students who had experienced trauma. A cross-sectional SEM design was used with a criterion sample of 194 South African undergraduate students (72.7% female; M = 21.06 years, SD = 1.84) who had experienced a traumatic event between one and five years before participation. Self-enhancing humor was a significant positive predictor of all five PTG dimensions (Relating to Others, New Possibilities, Personal Strength, Spiritual Change, and Appreciation of Life), with standardized path coefficients ranging from β = 0.324 to β = 0.477. The measurement model demonstrated acceptable fit, though CFI (0.870) fell marginally below the conventional 0.90 threshold, likely due to model complexity. Affiliative humor did not independently predict any PTG dimension, with its zero-order correlations accounted for by shared variance with self-enhancing humor. These findings suggest that the emotion regulation and cognitive reappraisal functions of self-enhancing humor may facilitate growth across multiple domains following trauma, and have implications for therapeutic interventions aimed at promoting PTG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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22 pages, 591 KB

Open AccessArticle

Source of Strength and Relational Catalyst Support: Pathways to Personal Growth and Thriving Among Sexually and Gender-Diverse Young Adults

by Cora R. Baron, Nancy L. Collins and Brooke C. Feeney

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1096; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071096 - 2 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Personal growth is a central aspect of development and well-being during young adulthood, yet sexually diverse and gender-diverse (SGD; a more inclusive term for LGBTQ+) young adults navigate this process within unique contexts shaped by identity, stress, and varying levels of social support. [...] Read more.

Personal growth is a central aspect of development and well-being during young adulthood, yet sexually diverse and gender-diverse (SGD; a more inclusive term for LGBTQ+) young adults navigate this process within unique contexts shaped by identity, stress, and varying levels of social support. Despite growing visibility and social recognition of SGD identities in the United States, SGD individuals continue to face prejudice and discrimination, which negatively affects their physical and psychological health. Research indicates that stigmatized and marginalized populations with greater psychosocial resources are better able to cope with identity-related stressors. Yet, scholarship on coping with stigma and discrimination remains largely disconnected from research on social support, personal growth, and thriving within close relationships. The present observational study of SGD young adults (N = 400) examines how identity-affirming support from close others contributes to positive well-being outcomes, specifically personal growth, self-concept clarity, and thriving. Whereas much prior work focuses on how support buffers stress, we examine its role across stressors and opportunities for growth, experienced broadly and in relation to SGD identity. Our findings underscore the critical role that close relationships play in fostering social safety and personal growth for SGD young adults navigating identity development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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23 pages, 384 KB

Open AccessArticle

Helping to Feel Better or Do Better? Implications of Interpersonal Emotion Regulation for Emotional Well-Being and Successful Goal Pursuit

by Lisanne S. Pauw, Laura Kirin and Francesca Righetti

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1071; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071071 - 30 Jun 2026

Viewed by 672

Abstract

Personal growth often requires people to cope with setbacks and the negative emotions they evoke. Romantic partners can serve as important sources of support in these situations. In this research, we examined which interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) strategies are most effective for supporting [...] Read more.

Personal growth often requires people to cope with setbacks and the negative emotions they evoke. Romantic partners can serve as important sources of support in these situations. In this research, we examined which interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) strategies are most effective for supporting two common goals in such contexts: improving emotional well-being and facilitating goal pursuit. Across three studies, we investigated the effectiveness of seven IER strategies (i.e., interpersonal acceptance, reappraisal, problem-solving, co-rumination, distraction, suppression and ignoring) for helping one’s partner feel better (hedonic goal) vs. achieve their goal (instrumental goal). Study 1 assessed whether the perceived effectiveness of these IER strategies was dependent on people’s hedonic vs. instrumental regulatory goal. Study 2 examined naturally occurring IER in romantic relationships, testing which IER strategies were related to perceived efficacy of the partner in fostering hedonic and instrumental goal achievement. Study 3 used a one-month longitudinal design to examine changes in negative affect and goal progress over time. Results showed that while people perceive IER strategies as differentially effective for hedonic versus instrumental goals, strategies that address obstacles (i.e., problem-solving) may be especially effective in helping romantic partners support both emotional well-being and goal pursuit, two processes central to personal growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

22 pages, 790 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parental Identity Development Processes as Predictors of Personal Growth During the Transition to Parenthood Among First-Time Expecting Mothers and Fathers

by Orit Eliakim, Neta Hikri-Boton, Nir Madjar, Elli Schachter and Maya Cohen-Malayev

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050790 - 15 May 2026

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Abstract

Objective: Using a two-point design, this study examined five parental identity development processes as predictors of personal growth following birth among first-time expecting mothers and fathers. Background: Although personal growth during the transition to parenthood has been documented and several factors promoting it [...] Read more.

Objective: Using a two-point design, this study examined five parental identity development processes as predictors of personal growth following birth among first-time expecting mothers and fathers. Background: Although personal growth during the transition to parenthood has been documented and several factors promoting it have been identified, much remains unknown about what enables people to grow through this experience. Parental identity development, which has been linked to positive adjustment and well-being during this transition, represents an unexplored framework for understanding personal growth during this critical period. Method: A total of 169 first-time expectant parents (97 women, Mage = 31.9, SD = 3.46; 72 men, Mage = 32.1, SD = 3.43) participated in this two-point design study: 1–3 months before birth (T1) and 3–5 months after birth (T2). Results: Women showed an increase in personal growth following birth, while men showed a decrease. Only Identification with Commitment—one of the five parental identity processes—measured before birth predicted personal growth after birth for both genders. Among men, increases in three of these processes were associated with decreases in personal growth. Conclusions: These findings highlight the complex and gendered relationship between parental identity development and personal growth during the transition to parenthood, suggesting that these two frameworks are mutually informative: parental identity processes predict the emergence of personal growth, while personal growth outcomes reveal the complexity and nuance of parental identity formation during this pivotal period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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18 pages, 758 KB

Open AccessArticle

Future Self-Continuity and Psychological Well-Being in Chinese College Students: The Mediating Role of Meaning in Life and the Moderating Role of Moral Identity

by Xiaowen Zhu, Guoliang Qu, Guanrui Wang, Quan Wei and Yangmei Luo

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050647 - 26 Apr 2026

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Abstract

Future self-continuity is crucial for mental health and social adaptation. Previous research has mainly focused on its direct influence on cognitive decision-making and goal pursuit, with little emphasis on its effect on psychological well-being. This study addressed the research gap by employing a [...] Read more.

Future self-continuity is crucial for mental health and social adaptation. Previous research has mainly focused on its direct influence on cognitive decision-making and goal pursuit, with little emphasis on its effect on psychological well-being. This study addressed the research gap by employing a questionnaire to examine the link between future self-continuity and psychological well-being in 890 Chinese college students, emphasizing the mediating effect of meaning in life and the moderating effect of moral identity. The findings indicated that future self-continuity directly predicts psychological well-being and indirectly contributes by enhancing meaning in life. Moral identity negatively moderated both pathways, making the positive impacts of future self-continuity on psychological well-being and meaning in life more pronounced in individuals with low moral identity and diminished in those with high moral identity. These findings highlight future self-continuity as a cognitive resource that fosters well-being by cultivating meaning in life, while also identifying moral identity as a boundary condition. This research reveals the mechanisms and boundary conditions linking future self-continuity to psychological well-being, offering actionable insights to enhance mental health in college students. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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18 pages, 350 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multidimensional School Climate and Mental Health Among Chinese Vocational High School Students: The Role of Personal Growth Initiative

by Yang Cui, Yun Wang and Hongyun Liu

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16040569 - 9 Apr 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1717

Abstract

Vocational high school students represent a substantial yet understudied population in school-based mental health research. Drawing on positive psychology and bioecological theory, this study examined whether personal growth initiative (PGI) shows a statistical indirect effect with respect to the relationships between multidimensional school [...] Read more.

Vocational high school students represent a substantial yet understudied population in school-based mental health research. Drawing on positive psychology and bioecological theory, this study examined whether personal growth initiative (PGI) shows a statistical indirect effect with respect to the relationships between multidimensional school climate and mental health outcomes among Chinese vocational students. Participants were 14,006 students from 112 vocational high schools. Two-level path models simultaneously entered different climate dimensions to estimate their unique associations with PGI, depressive symptoms, and Subjective well-being (SWB) at the within- and between-school levels, controlling for gender and socioeconomic status. Within schools, Safety, Interpersonal Relationships, Rules and Norms/Career Development Support, and Teaching and Learning/Diversity were positively associated with PGI, which in turn was associated with lower depressive symptoms and higher SWB. Wald tests indicated that Safety showed the strongest overall association with depressive symptoms, whereas Interpersonal Relationships showed the strongest overall association with SWB. At the between-school level, school-average climate and school-average PGI were associated with both outcomes, although these findings should be interpreted cautiously given the limited between-school power and substantial overlap among aggregated climate indicators. Overall, the findings are consistent with PGI being an important student-level pathway linking school climate to mental health in vocational education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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27 pages, 4310 KB

Open AccessArticle

Individual Differences in the Affective Experience of Writing a Gratitude Letter: Who Benefits Most?

by Tanya K. Vannoy, Lisa C. Walsh, Luke Liao and Sonja Lyubomirsky

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(2), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16020232 - 5 Feb 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1202

Abstract

This study merged archival data from three separate experiments to investigate the typology of individuals who benefit most and least from gratitude letter writing interventions (N = 487). First, k-means clustering of pre- to post-intervention changes in affect revealed three distinct groups: [...] Read more.

This study merged archival data from three separate experiments to investigate the typology of individuals who benefit most and least from gratitude letter writing interventions (N = 487). First, k-means clustering of pre- to post-intervention changes in affect revealed three distinct groups: Buffered, Mixed Feelings, and Backfired. The Buffered cluster comprised individuals who, on average, experienced decreases in negative affect (e.g., less frustration) but no changes in positive emotions (e.g., joyful). The Mixed Feelings cluster experienced increases in positive affect, alongside self-conscious emotions, particularly indebtedness, which became more closely aligned with uplifting emotional states following the intervention. The Backfired cluster experienced decreases in positive feelings and increases in negative affect. Next, differences in individual characteristics across clusters indicated that those in the Buffered cluster were relatively more neurotic, had higher baseline negative feelings, and lower trait gratitude. Individuals in the Mixed Feelings cluster tended to be more dispositionally grateful and seemed to invest more effort into the activity. Finally, individuals in the Backfired cluster were also relatively more grateful and had higher baseline positive affect. These findings contribute to understanding individual differences in the effectiveness of gratitude letter interventions and highlight opportunities to tailor such activities to promote personal growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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15 pages, 300 KB

Open AccessArticle

Predictors of Perceived Posttraumatic Growth and Depreciation as Outcomes of Experienced Discrimination

by Adriel Boals, Elizabeth L. Griffith, Ruth L. King, Kiet Huynh and Jonathan Cajas

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16010041 - 24 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1324

Abstract

Although perceived posttraumatic growth (PPTG) has been examined in a wide variety of potentially traumatic and/or adverse events, very few studies have examined PPTG in response to experienced discrimination. Further, there is a strong need to better understand the factors that contribute to [...] Read more.

Although perceived posttraumatic growth (PPTG) has been examined in a wide variety of potentially traumatic and/or adverse events, very few studies have examined PPTG in response to experienced discrimination. Further, there is a strong need to better understand the factors that contribute to psychological outcomes following discrimination. The purpose of the current study was to examine correlates and predictors of unique variance in both positive (PPTG) and negative [perceived posttraumatic depreciation (PPTD)] trauma-related outcomes in response to discrimination experienced. A sample of 323 undergraduates from the United States (ages 18–58) who have experienced discrimination completed an online survey. The majority of participants indicated experiencing racial discrimination (51%), followed by gender discrimination (17%), and religious discrimination (10%). The results revealed that event centrality, perceived injustice, core beliefs, and resilience were all significantly associated with both PPTG and PPTD. In multiple regression models, core beliefs and resilience were unique predictors of both PPTG and PPTD. Specifically, core beliefs positively predicted PPTG and PPTD, and resilience positively predicted PPTG and negatively predicted PPTD. We conclude that experienced discrimination can powerfully alter one’s core beliefs, leaving the individual both more vulnerable to psychological depreciation, but also grants an opportunity for potential growth. We believe these findings can help clinicians better understand how to help individuals struggling with experienced discrimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

17 pages, 326 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Long Path to Motherhood: Personal Growth and Well-Being During Medically Assisted Reproduction

by Elad Mijalevich-Soker, Roni Meir and Orit Taubman – Ben-Ari

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 1694; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15121694 - 6 Dec 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 993

Abstract

Most studies of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) primarily focus on its negative consequences for women’s mental health. However, there are indications that women experience well-being and personal growth during this period as well. This study focuses on personal and social resources that contribute [...] Read more.

Most studies of medically assisted reproduction (MAR) primarily focus on its negative consequences for women’s mental health. However, there are indications that women experience well-being and personal growth during this period as well. This study focuses on personal and social resources that contribute to women’s well-being and personal growth during MAR, based on Schaefer and Moos’s personal growth model. We examined the contributions of socio-demographic and fertility-related characteristics, self-mastery, emotional regulation, and the tendency for social sharing. Women (n = 175) undergoing MAR completed self-report questionnaires. The study’s variables accounted for 36.6% of the variance in well-being and 34.4% in personal growth, indicating that higher self-mastery was associated with both higher well-being and personal growth. A lower tendency to suppress emotions was related to higher well-being, and a greater inclination for reappraisal and more sharing of the situation with others were associated with greater personal growth. Additionally, women undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF) experienced more growth compared to other MAR procedures. The findings highlight the importance of self-mastery, reappraisal, and social sharing for well-being and personal growth during MAR. They indicate that these positive consequences are distinct constructs, that deserve different intervention strategies to empower women’s mental health in such circumstances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

17 pages, 493 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Peer-Support Specialists: An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis

by Taryn C. Greene, Joshua R. Rhodes, Skyla Renner-Wilms, Richard G. Tedeschi, Bret A. Moore and Gary R. Elkins

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 1673; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15121673 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1525

Abstract

Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth (VPTG) is a critical yet underexplored phenomenon among trauma-focused helping professionals. While secondary trauma (ST), compassion fatigue, and burnout are widely recognized negative aspects of working with trauma survivors, less is known about the potential benefits of this work and [...] Read more.

Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth (VPTG) is a critical yet underexplored phenomenon among trauma-focused helping professionals. While secondary trauma (ST), compassion fatigue, and burnout are widely recognized negative aspects of working with trauma survivors, less is known about the potential benefits of this work and its contributions to well-being. This qualitative study explored peer-support specialists’ perceptions of growth arising from indirect exposure to trauma and examined how these experiences relate to well-being. Using interpretative phenomenological analysis, researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with 13 participants, independently coded transcripts, and developed themes through consensus. Findings suggest VPTG may follow a similar path to Posttraumatic Growth (PTG), with participants reporting challenges to core beliefs, emotional distress, and transformative cognitive-emotional shifts that facilitated growth across domains that appear to mirror the five PTG domains. Outcomes of working with trauma survivors extended beyond the PTG domains to include compassion satisfaction, hope, expanded coping skills, and improved mental health. Taken together, these findings illustrate the participants’ subjective experiences of both challenge and transformation through their work with trauma survivors, offering preliminary insight into how indirect trauma exposure may contribute to VPTG and well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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14 pages, 271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison Between the Original PTGI and the PTGI-SF in a Large Sample of New Mothers

by Orit Taubman – Ben-Ari

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 1641; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15121641 - 28 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 756

Abstract

The first objective of this study is to review and synthesize research from the past fifteen years on variables associated with personal growth (or post-traumatic growth, PTG) during the transition to motherhood, and to revisit key questions using a uniquely large dataset; the [...] Read more.

The first objective of this study is to review and synthesize research from the past fifteen years on variables associated with personal growth (or post-traumatic growth, PTG) during the transition to motherhood, and to revisit key questions using a uniquely large dataset; the second objective of the study is to compare findings across different PTG scoring methods, to determine whether the long and short forms of the Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) produce equivalent data and whether the five growth domain scores provide additional insights beyond the total scores. Data were aggregated from multiple previous studies, resulting in a large sample (n = 4641) of first-time mothers with infants up to 24 months old (M = 6.82 months, SD = 4.42). Analysis of the associations between demographic and childbirth characteristics and PTG scores revealed that in most cases, the original PTGI and the short version (PTGI-SF) exhibited similar associations with the background variables. The five PTGI domain scores of personal strengths, spirituality, new opportunities, and appreciation of life showed associations consistent with those observed for the two total scores. The findings reinforce and validate previous research, while also offering new insights. Notably, the results suggest that the PTGI-SF is highly useful, as it yields results comparable to those of the original, longer inventory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

18 pages, 312 KB

Open AccessArticle

Posttraumatic Growth and Resilience: Their Distinctive Relationships with Optimism and Pessimism

by Kanako Taku and Amber Efthemiou

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1519; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111519 - 8 Nov 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2007

Abstract

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) and resilience should have distinct features due to their theoretical background, and yet their respective relationships with optimism have been consistently positive. Their relationships with pessimism have been understudied, which obscures how PTG and resilience may conceptually differ. We hypothesize [...] Read more.

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) and resilience should have distinct features due to their theoretical background, and yet their respective relationships with optimism have been consistently positive. Their relationships with pessimism have been understudied, which obscures how PTG and resilience may conceptually differ. We hypothesize that the differences may emerge whether optimism and pessimism are evaluated as cognitive expectancies or dispositional personality traits. The current study examined how optimism and pessimism would be distinctly associated with PTG and resilience, depending on whether optimism and pessimism reflect dispositional personality traits or cognitive expectancies. Midwestern United States university students (N = 347) completed an in-person survey that included measures examining optimism and pessimism as personality traits and a cognitive task estimating the likelihood of positive and negative future events happening to them and happening to others and re-estimating after obtaining novel information (i.e., belief update), in addition to PTG and resilience. Results indicated that dispositional optimism was positively associated with both PTG and resilience, whereas dispositional pessimism was negatively associated with only resilience. Furthermore, higher expectancy of positive events to be happening in the future was mostly associated with PTG whereas lower expectancy of negative events to be happening in the future was mostly associated with resilience. In addition, the perception that positive events would be more likely to happen to them than to others was only associated with resilience. Findings regarding the relationships with adjusted cognitive expectancies (i.e., belief update) were mixed. The current findings reveal potential distinctions between PTG and resilience by highlighting that they may have asymmetrical relationships with optimism and pessimism, depending on whether optimistic/pessimistic characteristics are considered as personality traits or cognitive expectations of positive and negative future events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

18 pages, 282 KB

Open AccessArticle

SOLACE Spectrum: A Personality Assessment for Personal Growth in Therapy

by Sherry R. Rosenblad, Carlos Guerrero, Jodie Lockeby and Dirce Utrera

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1473; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111473 - 29 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2072

Abstract

Personality assessment has long been recognized as a valuable tool for understanding individual differences with implications for self-understanding and growth-related processes. Building on the development of the Personality Spectrum Analysis (PSA), the present study evaluated the SOLACE Spectrum, a revised and expanded measure [...] Read more.

Personality assessment has long been recognized as a valuable tool for understanding individual differences with implications for self-understanding and growth-related processes. Building on the development of the Personality Spectrum Analysis (PSA), the present study evaluated the SOLACE Spectrum, a revised and expanded measure designed to provide a reliable and accessible framework for understanding personality in therapeutic and relational contexts. Data were collected from 1021 adults through online administration, and exploratory factor analysis revealed six components: Stability, Optimism, Leadership, Achievement, Compassion, and Extroversion. The instrument demonstrated strong internal consistency (α = 0.91) and robust test–retest reliability (0.851–0.922), indicating stability over time. Findings support the SOLACE Spectrum as a psychometrically sound measure that can inform understanding of personality traits, relationship processes, and personal growth processes. Its application may assist professionals in therapy, counseling, and educational or organizational settings by providing descriptive feedback on personality dimensions, highlighting areas of strength, and identifying potential areas for reflection and personal insight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

15 pages, 669 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diverging Paths to the Self: The Distinct Psychological Roles of Nostalgia and Declinism in Personal Growth

by Zhuo Feng, Tim Wildschut, Constantine Sedikides and Jianning Dang

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(10), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15101388 - 14 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3706

Abstract

We investigated how nostalgia and declinism, two distinct forms of past-oriented reflection, differentially relate to personal growth. In preregistered cross-sectional Study 1 (N = 810, Chinese sample), we measured nostalgia using three instruments: the Southampton Nostalgia Scale (SNS), the Nostalgia Inventory (NI), [...] Read more.

We investigated how nostalgia and declinism, two distinct forms of past-oriented reflection, differentially relate to personal growth. In preregistered cross-sectional Study 1 (N = 810, Chinese sample), we measured nostalgia using three instruments: the Southampton Nostalgia Scale (SNS), the Nostalgia Inventory (NI), and the Personal Inventory of Nostalgic Experiences (PINE). Although SNS- and NI-based nostalgia were positively associated with personal growth and uncorrelated with declinism, PINE-based nostalgia was positively linked to declinism and unrelated to growth. Canonical correlation analysis further indicated conceptual overlap between PINE items and declinism. In experimental Study 2 (N = 360, Chinese sample), we manipulated nostalgia and declinism with the Event Reflection Task to test their causal effects. Compared to a control condition, nostalgia increased personal growth, but declinism reduced it. Collectively, the findings highlight the importance of measurement in nostalgia research and underscore the psychological distinction between nostalgia and declinism. Accurately capturing the tone and function of nostalgic reflection is essential to understanding its influence on the self, motivation, and well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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19 pages, 828 KB

Open AccessArticle

Personal Growth and Wellbeing: An Iterative Mindset Assessment and Perspective

by Kyra Bobinet, Jeni L. Burnette, Whitney Becker and Mallory Rowell

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 906; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070906 - 4 Jul 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 7546

Abstract

Interest in personal growth is expanding in both the popular press and the scientific literature. These expansions incorporate varied theoretical approaches and multiple areas of life. In the current work, we propose a novel perspective that focuses on managing failure to reach self-improvement [...] Read more.

Interest in personal growth is expanding in both the popular press and the scientific literature. These expansions incorporate varied theoretical approaches and multiple areas of life. In the current work, we propose a novel perspective that focuses on managing failure to reach self-improvement goals and improving wellbeing. Specifically, we introduce an iterative mindset, which is the belief that making adaptations combined with deliberate practice and neutralizing of failure is critical for lasting transformations. We seek to contribute to the personal growth and mindset literature in two key ways. First, we developed and validated a new measure, called an Iterative Mindset Inventory (IMI), examining factor structure, reliability, and validity. Second, we investigated the links between iterative mindsets, self-improvement, and wellbeing, extending existing work on the power of beliefs to shape self-development. In both studies (Study 1, N = 871; Study 2, N = 345), we incorporated online samples that resembled the adult population of the United States. In Study 1, we found evidence for the proposed theoretical three-factor structure of an iterative mindset, which we label iterate, practice, and assess. In Study 2, using a longitudinal approach across three weeks, we confirmed the three-factor structure and found high test–retest reliability. Iterative mindsets were also positively linked to weight-loss success across both studies and to self-efficacy and wellbeing in Study 2. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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Review

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21 pages, 350 KB

Open AccessReview

Artificial Intelligence as a Personal Coach: A Narrative Review of Benefits and Risks in Educational and Health Contexts

by Jason T. Potel and Madoka Kumashiro

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16081431 - 19 Aug 2026

Viewed by 554

Abstract

The last decade has seen a rapid increase in individuals turning to artificial intelligence (AI) for advice related to their personal development, especially with the introduction of general-purpose large language models (LLMs) to the general public in 2022. This narrative review examines the [...] Read more.

The last decade has seen a rapid increase in individuals turning to artificial intelligence (AI) for advice related to their personal development, especially with the introduction of general-purpose large language models (LLMs) to the general public in 2022. This narrative review examines the potential benefits and risks of using AI for coaching purposes in educational and health contexts. Given that empirical studies on using general-purpose LLMs in these domains remain limited, this paper first synthesizes findings from purpose-built coaching chatbots designed to perform specific tasks that facilitate personal development in these domains and discusses limitations associated with studies that use older versions of chatbots. The reviewed evidence suggests that purpose-built chatbot coaching systems may have some benefits as they are generally well received and can support short-term motivation and selected behavior change, but effects for sustained, meaningful outcomes are inconsistent. We then reflect on the potential risks of using general-purpose LLMs as a coach without appropriate human oversight, by reviewing features of general-purpose LLMs, such as sycophancy, accuracy, and problematic patterns of use. Synthesizing these findings, we consider their implications before identifying potential directions for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

20 pages, 570 KB

Open AccessReview

Personal Growth Through Products and Brands: Michelangelo Phenomenon and Product Affirmation

by Madoka Kumashiro, Michael K. Coolsen and Keith A. Quesenberry

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 1398; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16081398 - 14 Aug 2026

Viewed by 501

Abstract

This conceptual review bridges the interpersonal and consumer-behavior relationship studies to examine how consumer products can function as symbolic relationship partners that can facilitate personal growth. We apply the Michelangelo phenomenon, an interpersonal model of personal growth, to propose a model of product [...] Read more.

This conceptual review bridges the interpersonal and consumer-behavior relationship studies to examine how consumer products can function as symbolic relationship partners that can facilitate personal growth. We apply the Michelangelo phenomenon, an interpersonal model of personal growth, to propose a model of product affirmation, in which products, services, or brands can be used by consumers to experience personal growth, much in the same manner that close relationship partners can help individuals move toward their ideal selves. The model proposes that products and brands may serve as symbolic relationship partners that may be able to affirm consumers’ desired traits, values, aspirations, and identities, which in turn can support personal growth and enhance personal well-being and brand loyalty. We review the theoretical foundations of this affirmation process by drawing parallels between the literature on interpersonal processes and consumer–brand behavior to develop a conceptual basis for this model. We also discuss potential negative consequences when brands reinforce maladaptive, unrealistic, or externally imposed ideals. We conclude with theoretical and practical implications, including for marketing practice, and directions for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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15 pages, 279 KB

Open AccessReview

Eudaimonia as Personal Growth: Decades of Research and Needed Future Directions

by Carol D. Ryff

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 966; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16060966 - 11 Jun 2026

Viewed by 1142

Abstract

This article examined a conception of personal growth put forth in a multidimensional model of psychological well-being over 35 years ago. The model is widely used around the world. One key dimension of well-being is personal growth, which is examined in detail here. [...] Read more.

This article examined a conception of personal growth put forth in a multidimensional model of psychological well-being over 35 years ago. The model is widely used around the world. One key dimension of well-being is personal growth, which is examined in detail here. The conceptual underpinnings of this construct are reviewed, as well as its formal definition and empirical operationalization. Decades of scientific research about personal growth are selectively reviewed, focusing on factors that predict different levels of personal growth as well as how it is linked with other phenomena such as health, biological risk factors, and cognitive capacities. Future directions in the science and practice of personal growth are put forth, including the need to address obstacles to personal growth tied to widening inequality, the role of the arts and humanities in nurturing personal becoming, and the need to elevate virtue and ethics as core features of eudaimonia, with exemplars from human history provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

21 pages, 358 KB

Open AccessReview

Human 2.0? AI and the Future of Well-Being, Connection, and Personal Growth: A Narrative Review

by Tanya K. Vannoy, Stephen Cadieux and Sonja Lyubomirsky

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(6), 909; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16060909 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 2567

Abstract

This narrative review examines research on artificial intelligence (AI), including rule-based systems, natural language processing models, and large language models, in relation to well-being, social connection, and personal growth. After briefly tracing the history of AI, we review evidence from AI-facilitated well-being interventions, [...] Read more.

This narrative review examines research on artificial intelligence (AI), including rule-based systems, natural language processing models, and large language models, in relation to well-being, social connection, and personal growth. After briefly tracing the history of AI, we review evidence from AI-facilitated well-being interventions, educational applications, interpersonal skill development, AI-mediated communication, and AI companionship. In clinical and nonclinical settings, structured AI applications show some short-term benefits for anxiety, stress, loneliness, self-esteem, learning, and social confidence, while emerging evidence suggests that AI companions may provide temporary emotional support and a sense of connection. However, findings across these domains are not consistent and appear to depend on how AI is used, the structure of the interaction, the type of feedback provided, and the broader context. Important risks include emotional dependence, overreliance, reduced human connection, weakened authenticity in communication, cognitive or socioemotional skill erosion, bias, and poor crisis response. Preliminary findings suggest that AI may be most beneficial when used to support, rather than replace, human capacities and relationships. Future research should examine long-term outcomes, individual differences, real-world use of publicly available AI systems, and the conditions under which AI strengthens or undermines well-being, relationships, and personal growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

26 pages, 1333 KB

Open AccessReview

Conversational AI and Personal Growth: Insights from a Critical Integrative Review

by Shivali Sharma, Pranika Vohra and Laura M. Vowels

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050756 - 12 May 2026

Viewed by 1197

Abstract

Conversational AI systems are increasingly integrated into individuals’ emotional and relational lives, yet whether such interactions can meaningfully support personal growth remains poorly understood. This critical integrative review synthesises theoretical frameworks from humanistic psychology, self-determination theory, attachment theory, and relationship science with empirical [...] Read more.

Conversational AI systems are increasingly integrated into individuals’ emotional and relational lives, yet whether such interactions can meaningfully support personal growth remains poorly understood. This critical integrative review synthesises theoretical frameworks from humanistic psychology, self-determination theory, attachment theory, and relationship science with empirical research on human-AI interaction to address this question directly. Drawing on 130 studies spanning therapeutic, companion, and educational AI contexts, the review identifies four interdependent domains that together shape growth outcomes in human-AI contexts: user-related characteristics, AI design features, human-AI relational dynamics, and broader contextual factors. The evidence supports a position of bounded optimism: conversational AI can scaffold early emotional stabilisation, structured self-reflection, and therapeutic skill rehearsal, yet it remains structurally limited in replicating the reciprocal vulnerability, rupture-and-repair processes, and calibrated ideal-self affirmation that underpin enduring psychological development. Engagement-optimised design—including flattery, progressive intimacy escalation, and unconditional validation—is consistently identified as a systematic barrier to growth across multiple domains of the framework. An integrative four-domain conceptual framework is proposed to guide both future research and the ethical design of AI systems that support, rather than undermine, the relational mechanisms fundamental to human flourishing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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10 pages, 227 KB

Open AccessReview

Self-Expansion Activities with a Partner as One Path to Well-Being

by Arthur Aron and Jennifer M. Tomlinson

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 700; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050700 - 4 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2698

Abstract

The self-expansion model has generated hundreds of studies on the benefits of relationships for the self, but few have explicitly made the link from relationship quality to well-being. In this article we focus on how doing self-expanding activities with a romantic partner can [...] Read more.

The self-expansion model has generated hundreds of studies on the benefits of relationships for the self, but few have explicitly made the link from relationship quality to well-being. In this article we focus on how doing self-expanding activities with a romantic partner can enhance relationship quality and, in turn, enhance well-being. First, we review the basic model; then, we present a section on the overall well-being benefits of strengthening relationships; then, we go through the various areas of study of self-expansion for couples highlighting for each the studies that show not just greater marital satisfaction, but the effect on various specific well-being effects. After one develops a relationship, one becomes accustomed to this self-expansion through including the partner into the self. As a result, the excitement of this inclusion slows over time, and thus relationships can become dull. But we argue that a major way to reinvigorate relationships is by doing novel and challenging (self-expanding) activities together with one’s partner, so that the self-expansion becomes associated with the relationship. We then briefly review many studies (experiments, daily diary, and others) supporting this principle: shared self-expanding activities increase relationship quality. Finally, we briefly discuss research showing that enhancing relationship quality increases well-being. This emphasis on well-being is important because it can help researchers understand the mechanisms behind how a specific form of improving relationships contributes to well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

8 pages, 187 KB

Open AccessReview

Posttraumatic Growth as a Pathway to Wellness for Individuals and Organizations

by Richard G. Tedeschi, Bret A. Moore and Taryn C. Greene

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 1653; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15121653 - 2 Dec 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5149

Abstract

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) offers an alternative understanding of trauma response, contrasting with traditional perspectives focused solely on symptom development and resilience. In the PTG model, individuals and groups report positive changes in life philosophy, self-understanding, and interpersonal relationships because of successfully navigating the [...] Read more.

Posttraumatic growth (PTG) offers an alternative understanding of trauma response, contrasting with traditional perspectives focused solely on symptom development and resilience. In the PTG model, individuals and groups report positive changes in life philosophy, self-understanding, and interpersonal relationships because of successfully navigating the struggles involved with experiencing adversity. This narrative review includes the evolution of PTG theory, highlighting the disruption of core beliefs, the role of rumination, and the reconstruction of a life narrative as central mechanisms of the PTG process. The authors describe the five empirically validated domains of PTG and outline the naturally occurring PTG process. Methods are discussed for facilitating PTG through “expert companions,” who may be peers or professionals providing nonjudgmental, supportive relationships that encourage emotional regulation, constructive disclosure, and meaning making. The article explores how these methods can be applied to individuals, communities, and organizations, all of which may experience comparable domains of growth following collective adversity. The article concludes by highlighting how a focus on posttraumatic growth shifts perspectives from viewing trauma survivors as broken to recognizing their potential for transformation and underscores the role of both professional and community support in fostering PTG and healthier organizational climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

16 pages, 404 KB

Open AccessReview

Mindfulness, Loving-Kindness, and Compassion-Based Meditation Interventions and Adult Attachment Orientations: A Systematic Map

by Taranah Gazder, Erica Ruby Drummond, Mine Gelegen and Sarah C. E. Stanton

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020119 - 24 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 10334

Abstract

Meditation interventions have important benefits, including potentially helping those with higher attachment anxiety and avoidance enjoy better personal and relational growth. This preregistered and reproducible systematic map sought to identify the extent and scope of experimental evidence investigating the role of mindfulness, loving-kindness, [...] Read more.

Meditation interventions have important benefits, including potentially helping those with higher attachment anxiety and avoidance enjoy better personal and relational growth. This preregistered and reproducible systematic map sought to identify the extent and scope of experimental evidence investigating the role of mindfulness, loving-kindness, and compassion-based multi-session meditation interventions in (a) moderating the effects of attachment orientations on outcomes over time and/or (b) changing attachment orientations over time. We conducted a systematic map, as the literature on meditation interventions and attachment is nascent. We searched 5 databases, screening 725 studies. We extracted data from four journal articles and one dissertation (five studies in total) which met our inclusion criteria. Four studies examined the effects of meditation interventions on buffering attachment insecurity and one examined attachment security enhancement. All five studies included a mindfulness meditation intervention, and one included a loving-kindness meditation intervention. All studies were conducted in Western cultures. Studies primarily found evidence for interventions benefitting those with higher attachment anxiety, although some evidence emerged for higher attachment avoidance. Our systematic map highlights a critical need for further application of meditation interventions in an attachment and personal growth context, given the promising nature of early work in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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14 pages, 571 KB

Open AccessProject Report

Development of the Self-Directed TRANSCEND Suffering Workbook Intervention: A Population Health Psychology Approach for ‘Everyday’ Suffering

by Richard G. Cowden, Emily C. Hill, Omar S. Haque, Virág Zábó, György Purebl, Johannes H. De Kock and Tyler J. VanderWeele

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040445 - 31 Mar 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2601

Abstract

The discipline of psychology has long been interested in understanding human suffering and identifying suitable approaches for effectively managing it. Although there are many clinical models invoking different philosophical worldviews and therapeutic approaches for addressing suffering, they typically require trained professionals and, therefore, [...] Read more.

The discipline of psychology has long been interested in understanding human suffering and identifying suitable approaches for effectively managing it. Although there are many clinical models invoking different philosophical worldviews and therapeutic approaches for addressing suffering, they typically require trained professionals and, therefore, are not widely accessible to the general population. Empirical evidence suggests that even ‘everyday’ experiences of suffering in nonclinical populations can negatively impact mental health and well-being, which has ushered in calls for a population health psychology approach by developing accessible, affordable, and scalable interventions that attend to the experience of suffering. As a response to such calls, we developed the TRANSCEND Suffering workbook, a brief self-directed workbook intervention for suffering. This project report describes the first phase of the workbook development process, including its scope, theoretical underpinnings, central change objectives, organization, and engagement targets. We summarize feedback that laypeople and experts spanning various academic and applied disciplines provided about the workbook and discuss how this feedback was evaluated and used to make refinements aimed at enhancing the utility of the workbook. While empirical testing is needed to determine the efficacy of the TRANSCEND Suffering workbook, we discuss some potential implications (along with caveats and limitations) of this low-intensity intervention for addressing population-level suffering, facilitating growth through suffering, and promoting human flourishing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiences and Well-Being in Personal Growth)

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