Behavioral Sciences

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17 pages, 543 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Ethical Foundations of Being Respected as a Citizen: A Triadic Theory Consisting of Autonomy, Boundary, and Equality

by Chuanjun Liu and Li Zhou

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040513 - 11 Apr 2025

Viewed by 345

Abstract

The concept of “citizen” differs across disciplines. Drawing on insights from multiple disciplines, this paper argues that being respected is the fundamental ethical basis for citizens and proposes a normative framework. In this framework, people being respected as citizens relies on three foundations: [...] Read more.

The concept of “citizen” differs across disciplines. Drawing on insights from multiple disciplines, this paper argues that being respected is the fundamental ethical basis for citizens and proposes a normative framework. In this framework, people being respected as citizens relies on three foundations: autonomy, boundary, and equality. Autonomy means a citizen has the right to make choices and act independently and freely. Nevertheless, this freedom is not boundless. Boundary consciousness is the manifestation of a citizen. Being a citizen implies the presence of boundaries that safeguard individual freedom and autonomy while prohibiting violations of others’ boundaries. Equality is the fundamental element of being a citizen. Subjects in disadvantaged unequal relationships find difficulty in becoming real citizens. People engage in behaviors that harm themselves and others due to differences in social cognition, embedded social relationships that blur behavioral boundaries, and hierarchical cultures that cause status inequality. This theoretical framework can provide ethical and normative guidance for citizen cultivation. Citizen cultivation should focus on fostering people’s autonomy of being responsible and accountable, recognizing and respecting self and others’ necessary boundaries, and constructing individuals’ subjective equality consciousness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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17 pages, 1208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual and Contextual Morality: How Educators in Oppositional and Permissive Communities Use Culturally Responsive Practices

by Kate M. Morman, Cong Wang, Laura M. Brady and Stephanie A. Fryberg

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040446 - 31 Mar 2025

Viewed by 671

Abstract

Instructional practices that attend to students’ cultural motivations and strengths can play an important role in mitigating educational inequities. However, educators increasingly experience backlash for efforts to address educational inequities, raising moral questions about how educators should engage students. Through a national study, [...] Read more.

Instructional practices that attend to students’ cultural motivations and strengths can play an important role in mitigating educational inequities. However, educators increasingly experience backlash for efforts to address educational inequities, raising moral questions about how educators should engage students. Through a national study, we explored how educators’ likelihood of implementing culturally responsive practices (CRPs) (i.e., practices focused on affirming students’ cultural backgrounds) varied according to educators’ individual moral frameworks (i.e., multicultural and colorblind diversity ideologies) and the contextual moral frameworks they encountered among their administrators (i.e., support for educational equity work) and local communities (i.e., DEI sentiment). When their communities were permissive of DEI, teachers who strongly endorsed multiculturalism implemented CRPs frequently, regardless of their administrators’ support for equity work. In DEI-opposed communities, however, pro-multiculturalism educators only implemented CRPs frequently when their administrators supported equity work. In contrast, regardless of community-level DEI sentiment, CRP implementation among educators with weaker endorsement of multiculturalism depended upon administrators’ support for equity work. Results suggest that educators with less well-defined individual moral frameworks about diversity rely upon contextual frameworks to determine their practices, while those with more codified moral frameworks rely upon contextual frameworks primarily when their individual moral frameworks conflict with their community’s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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23 pages, 786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Money on Utilitarian and Deontological Inclinations in Moral Judgments: A Study Using Process-Dissociation Approach

by Mufan Zheng, Huijun Li, Liqinzi Mo and Xiaoxiao Wang

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040430 - 27 Mar 2025

Viewed by 332

Abstract

Previous research has extensively examined the impact of money on morality, yet limited attention has been given to how the mere contemplation of money influences moral reasoning and decision-making. The present study aims to address this gap by exploring how both the concept [...] Read more.

Previous research has extensively examined the impact of money on morality, yet limited attention has been given to how the mere contemplation of money influences moral reasoning and decision-making. The present study aims to address this gap by exploring how both the concept of money and the love of money shape deontological and utilitarian inclinations in moral judgments. In Study 1 (N = 102), we investigated the effect of money concept priming on moral thinking. Participants were primed with either the concept of money or a neutral concept through a scrambled-sentences task, and subsequently made moral decisions in 20 dilemmas adapted from Conway and Gawronski. These dilemmas required participants to decide whether to harm others in order to achieve a greater outcome. To assess participants’ utilitarian and deontological tendencies, we employed the process-dissociation procedure. In Study 2 (N = 488), we further examined the relationship between the love of money—a long-term trait—and moral judgments. Specifically, we investigated whether four moral orientations (deliberation, rule, sentiment, and integration) mediate the relationship between the love of money and deontological/utilitarian inclinations. Participants completed the love of money scale and the moral orientation scale before reading the same 20 dilemmas from Study 1. Our findings revealed that priming the concept of money enhanced utilitarian tendencies but did not significantly affect deontological tendencies. Furthermore, the love of money was negatively correlated with deontological tendencies and positively correlated with utilitarian tendencies. Deliberation fully mediated the effect of the love of money on utilitarian tendencies and partially mediated its effect on deontological tendencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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20 pages, 483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Cognitive Load Influence Moral Judgments? The Role of Action–Omission and Collective Interests

by Mufan Zheng, Liying Wang and Yueying Tian

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030361 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 649

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the impact of cognitive load on moral judgments while incorporating action propensities and collective interests as variables. Study 1 (N = 102) used the dot matrix memory task to manipulate cognitive load, and participants made moral choices [...] Read more.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of cognitive load on moral judgments while incorporating action propensities and collective interests as variables. Study 1 (N = 102) used the dot matrix memory task to manipulate cognitive load, and participants made moral choices in action dilemmas and omission dilemmas. The findings revealed that when confronted with action moral dilemmas, participants in the high-cognitive load group exhibited a greater inclination towards utilitarian responses compared to those in the low-load group. However, cognitive load did not affect utilitarian choices in omission moral dilemmas. Study 2 (N = 100) further introduced the identities of protagonists in dilemmas involving conflicts between collective and individual interests. When facing a collective–individual interest conflict, participants under high cognitive load were more inclined to prioritize collective interests over individual interests compared to those under low load. Additionally, participants were more likely to choose collective interests in omission moral dilemmas than in action dilemmas. The impact of cognitive load on moral judgments was also influenced by the identities of the protagonists. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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16 pages, 934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Binding Moral Foundations Predict a Hypothetical Moral Behavior? The Moderating Role of the Perception of the In-Group Moral Standards

by Ankica Kosic, Annalisa Theodorou and Luigi Leone

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15030265 - 24 Feb 2025

Viewed by 516

Abstract

Previous studies have found a positive relationship between binding moral foundations and negative inter-group attitudes. Nevertheless, some studies have shown that, under specific conditions, binding foundations can also lead to positive outcomes, particularly within the intra-group context. In this research, we hypothesize that [...] Read more.

Previous studies have found a positive relationship between binding moral foundations and negative inter-group attitudes. Nevertheless, some studies have shown that, under specific conditions, binding foundations can also lead to positive outcomes, particularly within the intra-group context. In this research, we hypothesize that when people perceive that some in-group members violate moral norms, individuals with stronger binding moral foundations may exhibit a greater preference for moral choices in hypothetical moral dilemmas. This hypothesis was confirmed in Study 1 (N = 184) and replicated in Study 2 (N = 201), both conducted in Italy. In Study 1, we utilized a questionnaire containing the moral foundation questionnaire, while in Study 2, we employed moral foundation vignettes. In both studies, participants were presented with five scenarios describing hypothetical moral dilemmas that could occur in real-life settings. The findings indicate that binding moral foundations can lead to stronger preferences for moral choices in hypothetical moral dilemmas when the morality of the in-group is perceived to be under threat. These results are discussed in light of their implications for future research on binding foundations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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17 pages, 594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mitigating Ethnic Moral Disengagement: The Role of Inhibitory Control, Cognitive Reflection, and Growth-Oriented Personal Values from an Integrative Perspective

by Giuseppe Corbelli, Marinella Paciello, Carmela Sportelli, Paolo Giovanni Cicirelli and Francesca D’Errico

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020169 - 4 Feb 2025

Viewed by 913

Abstract

Despite the consequences of ethnic moral disengagement, such as ethnic bullying, racism, and prejudice, a comprehensive understanding of how to effectively counter it remains an ongoing area of research. The present study proposes an association between ethnic moral disengagement and three individual dimensions: [...] Read more.

Despite the consequences of ethnic moral disengagement, such as ethnic bullying, racism, and prejudice, a comprehensive understanding of how to effectively counter it remains an ongoing area of research. The present study proposes an association between ethnic moral disengagement and three individual dimensions: the executive function of inhibitory control, a reflective cognitive style, and personal values that reflect growth-oriented motivations in contrast to self-defensive ones. By evaluating these dimensions respectively through a behavioral task, a cognitive measure, and a self-report instrument, the aim is to understand the role of basic behavioral capability, cognitive reflection, and growth-oriented values in reducing ethnic moral disengagement. The study, conducted on 413 participants (243 female, M = 19.60 years, SD = 1.46) using a structural equation modeling approach, found that while inhibitory control was not significantly linked to ethnic moral disengagement, reflective information processing and broader value horizons may constitute a key resource for opposing it. Overall, these results suggest that individuals who adopt such a reflective and growth-oriented mindset may elaborate differences and unfamiliar encounters as opportunities rather than as threats to be defended against by justifying themselves and externally displacing responsibility for their decisions and actions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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18 pages, 959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Particularities of Employees’ Green Ethical Behavior in the Oil and Gas Sector

by Adriana Burlea-Schiopoiu and Camelia Olivia Timpa

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15010043 - 4 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1151

Abstract

The article aims to evaluate the particularities of the green, ethical behavior of employees from the oil and gas sector in light of climate change and sustainable development. We employed a quantitative research approach and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using [...] Read more.

The article aims to evaluate the particularities of the green, ethical behavior of employees from the oil and gas sector in light of climate change and sustainable development. We employed a quantitative research approach and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using SmartPLS4 software (version 4.1.0.9) to test our conceptual model. The results demonstrate that employees’ green, ethical behavior influences how the rules of conduct contribute to an organization’s sustainable development, and employees’ green, ethical behavior is influenced by the ethical values assumed by an organization through its code of ethics and integrity. Moreover, employees’ green, ethical behavior and ethical values mediate the relationships between other factors, such as, for example, employees’ knowledge of the particularities of a company’s ethical values, their degree of compliance with the rules of conduct within the organization, and how their compliance with the rules of conduct is reflected in the organization’s sustainable development. The reflection of ethical issues in an organization’s sustainable development depends on a systemic approach to the formal and informal behavior of managers and employees. The theoretical implications of our research represent a starting point for extending our knowledge of employees’ green ethical behavior in terms of their acceptance and application of rules and ethical principles in close connection with the sustainable development of an organization. This study’s practical implications consist of awareness of the role that managers play in developing certain internal instruments (i.e., codes of ethics and integrity) to be understood and accepted by employees, with power of their personal example in motivating employees to improve their green ethical behavior. In conclusion, the manifestation of green, ethical behavior in employees does not automatically lead to sustainable development if it is not based on a set of ethical values and rules of conduct clearly understood and accepted by these employees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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15 pages, 231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Moral Psychological Justification of Anger: An Exploration of Self-Respect and Recognition

by Jinjin Zhang, Zhiheng Xiong, Hao Zheng and Xiangzhen Ma

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15010003 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 2093

Abstract

In the field of moral psychology, traditional perspectives often evaluate anger based on its consequences, either validating or condemning it for its perceived benefits or harms. This paper argues for a shift in focus from the outcomes of anger to its moral and [...] Read more.

In the field of moral psychology, traditional perspectives often evaluate anger based on its consequences, either validating or condemning it for its perceived benefits or harms. This paper argues for a shift in focus from the outcomes of anger to its moral and psychological foundations. By integrating insights from psychological research, this study posits that the fundamental nature of anger is intrinsically linked to the quest for recognition. Justified anger is defined as an emotional response to the unmet need for fair acknowledgment, while unjustified anger stems from feelings of superiority and the pursuit of higher status. This paper distinguishes between these two forms of anger, providing a more nuanced and intuitive understanding of the emotion. This interpretive framework not only aligns with our experiential understanding of anger but also offers a theoretical bridge to reconcile divergent philosophical and psychological perspectives. This study emphasizes the importance of addressing the underlying issues of recognition and self-esteem, suggesting that anger, when properly understood and managed, can serve as a constructive force for social justice and mutual respect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

17 pages, 872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Humanizing the Transgressor and Lightening the Immoral Behavior: The Role of Likeability Bias and Moral Rationalization

by Sofía Moreno-Gata, Ramón Rodríguez-Torres, Verónica Betancor and Armando Rodríguez-Pérez

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1206; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121206 - 16 Dec 2024

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Abstract

People often perceive their moral judgments as objective and unbiased, yet research indicates that positive interpersonal attitudes lead to more lenient moral character assessments. Here we investigate how likeability towards moral transgressors and the different moral rationalization strategies they may employ impact both [...] Read more.

People often perceive their moral judgments as objective and unbiased, yet research indicates that positive interpersonal attitudes lead to more lenient moral character assessments. Here we investigate how likeability towards moral transgressors and the different moral rationalization strategies they may employ impact both the perceived severity of the immoral behavior and the attribution of humanity to the transgressor. In two studies, participants (N = 475) engaged in a 2 (likeability towards the transgressor: high vs. low) × 2 (moral rationalization: reconstruction of agency vs. reconstruction of morality) between-subjects experiment. Participants read information about an individual and an immoral action they engaged in and then evaluated the severity of the behavior and the degree of dehumanization of the transgressor. Results showed that feelings of likeability towards the transgressor, as well as rationalizing by reconstructing agency (compared to morality) reduced behavior severity and transgressor dehumanization. Moreover, likeability and the use of agency reconstruction by the transgressor showed an additive effect, as they combined to generate the most benevolent judgments. Recognizing the influence of these variables enhances our understanding of moral decision-making processes in interpersonal contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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23 pages, 1281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moral Believer or Moral Problem-Solver? Moral Pragmatism Fosters Tolerance Without Impeding Moral Behavior

by Li Zhang, Song Tong and Kaiping Peng

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14110984 - 23 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1288

Abstract

Many previous studies in moral psychology have described people as moral believers, who treat morality as universal sacred beliefs and show moral outrage and social exclusion toward people with different opinions. At the same time, moral relativism tends to make people more tolerant [...] Read more.

Many previous studies in moral psychology have described people as moral believers, who treat morality as universal sacred beliefs and show moral outrage and social exclusion toward people with different opinions. At the same time, moral relativism tends to make people more tolerant but also makes them question their own beliefs and leads to more immoral behavior. We propose moral pragmatism as an alternative, which treats morality as a tool for solving specific problems, thus making morality situational instead of universal, practical instead of sacred, and tolerant instead of exclusive. Through four empirical studies, we demonstrate that when moral issues are presented as practical problems rather than abstract beliefs, people consider morality to be less universal, treat dissidents with more tolerance and less outrage, and do not perform more immoral behavior at the same time. These findings highlight moral pragmatism as a flexible and culturally sensitive moral approach, promoting diverse moral perspectives and constructive cross-cultural discourses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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10 pages, 252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding COVID-19-Related Behaviors, Worries, and Attitudes among Chinese: Roles of Personality and Severity

by Jie Liu, Chun Cao and Yanyan Zhang

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060482 - 6 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1161

Abstract

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people exhibited various forms of adjustments. This study examines how situational factors (i.e., the severity of COVID-19) and individual differences (i.e., the HEXACO traits) affect one’s COVID-19-related responses regarding behaviors (i.e., mask-wearing and hoarding), worries (i.e., worrying about infecting [...] Read more.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people exhibited various forms of adjustments. This study examines how situational factors (i.e., the severity of COVID-19) and individual differences (i.e., the HEXACO traits) affect one’s COVID-19-related responses regarding behaviors (i.e., mask-wearing and hoarding), worries (i.e., worrying about infecting and spreading COVID-19), and attitudes (i.e., discrimination and empathy toward people infecting COVID-19) in China. With a sample of 927 participants, our results show that the severity of COVID-19 was predictive of all the responses, and its predictive value was more pronounced relative to personality traits. Concerning the association between personality traits and responses, Honesty-Humility and Conscientiousness were predictive of one’s behaviors, Emotionality was predictive of one’s worries, and almost all the HEXACO traits were associated with one’s attitudes toward people infected with COVID-19. This study sheds some light on understanding how situations and individual differences shape one’s responses in a time of emergency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

12 pages, 269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Sadness and Fear on Moral Judgments in Public Emergency Events

by Mufan Zheng, Shiyao Qin and Junhua Zhao

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060468 - 31 May 2024

Viewed by 1636

Abstract

With the rapid development of society and the deteriorating natural environment, there has been an increase in public emergencies. This study aimed to explore how sadness and fear in the context of public emergencies influence moral judgments. This research first induced feelings of [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of society and the deteriorating natural environment, there has been an increase in public emergencies. This study aimed to explore how sadness and fear in the context of public emergencies influence moral judgments. This research first induced feelings of sadness and fear by using videos about public emergencies and music, and then used moral scenarios from the CNI model (C parameter: sensitivity to consequences; N parameter: sensitivity to norms; I parameter: general preference for inaction) to assess participants’ moral thinking. In Study 1, participants were divided into a sadness group and a neutral group, while in Study 2, participants were divided into a fear group and a neutral group. During the experiment, participants were exposed to different videos related to public emergencies to induce the corresponding emotions, and emotional music was continuously played throughout the entire experiment. Participants were then asked to answer questions requiring moral judgments. The results showed that based on the CNI model, sadness induced in the context of public emergencies significantly increased the C parameter, without affecting the N or I parameters. Fear increased the I parameter, without affecting the C or I parameters. That is, sadness and fear induced in the context of a public emergency can influence moral judgments. Specifically, sadness increases individuals’ sensitivity to consequences and fear increases the general preference for inaction in moral judgments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Picturing Morality from Multidisciplinary Perspectives—Second Edition)

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