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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Mechanical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2019) | Viewed by 54304

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Carosena Meola

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Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, 80125 Napoli, Italy
Interests: infrared thermography; non-destructive testing; composite materials
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Dear Colleagues,

Composite materials are ever-more-increasingly employed in many applications, e.g., for the transport industry and the building sector, as well for the production of many daily-life objects. Their success is mainly due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, easy formability and relatively low costs. However, being composites made of two or more basic materials and manufactured through complex processes involving temperature, pressure, chemical reaction, etc., it may be expected the final product to be affected by anomalies. Moreover, the in-service life of the components could be responsible of defects creation and/or degradation of the composite. Therefore, effective non-destructive evaluation methods able to discover defects at an incipient stage are necessary to either assure the quality of a composite material prior to putting it into service, or for monitoring a composite structure in service.

This Special Issue of Applied Sciences on “Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials” aims to attract contributions covering all the applicable nondestructive testing techniques. Papers dealing with integration of techniques and/or with newly developed techniques are welcome.

Dr. Carosena Meola
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Composites
Bio-composites
Ceramic matrix
Metal matrix
Polymeric matrix
Thermoset matrix
Thermoplastic matrix
Nondestructive testing
Nondestructive evaluation
Acoustic emission
Infrared thermography
Penetrant liquids
Radiography
Ultrasonics
Visual inspection

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 158 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials

by Carosena Meola

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(15), 5123; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10155123 - 25 Jul 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1818

Abstract

A composite material is made of two or more constituents of different characteristics with the intent to complete the shortcomings of the individual components and to get a final product of specific characteristics and shape [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

Research

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9 pages, 2726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Weighted Estimation Algorithm for Enhancing Pulsed Eddy Current Infrared Image in Ecpt Non-Destructive Testing

by Hanchao Li, Yating Yu, Linfeng Li and Bowen Liu

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(20), 4199; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9204199 - 9 Oct 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1974

Abstract

Non-destructive testing (NDT) plays a crucial role in large scale industrial production such as in the nuclear industry and bridge structures where even a small crack can lead to severe accidents. The pulsed eddy current infrared thermography testing method, as a classic non-destructive testing technology, is proposed to detect cracks in the presence of excitation sources that cause temperature changes in the vicinity of defects, which is higher than normal area. However, in the vicinity of the excitation sources, the temperature is higher than normal even if there is no defect. Traditional infrared image enhancing algorithms do not work efficiently when processing infrared images because the colors in the images represent the temperature. To address this, a novel algorithm is proposed in this paper. A weighted estimation algorithm is proposed because each pixel value has a strong relationship with its neighboring pixels. The value of each pixel is determined by calculating the values of its neighboring pixels with a specific step-size and the correlation coefficients between them. These coefficients are obtained by calculating the differences between the pixels. The experimental results indicated that the outline of the welding defect became significantly clearer after being processed using the proposed algorithm, which can eliminate the errors caused by the excitation source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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9 pages, 1668 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Toward Creating a Portable Impedance-Based Nondestructive Testing Method for Debonding Damage Detection of Composite Structures

by Wongi S. Na and Ki-Tae Park

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(15), 3189; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9153189 - 5 Aug 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2447

Abstract

Debonding detection of composite structures is a vital task as such damage weakens the structure leading to a failure. As adhesive bonding is a more preferable choice over the conventional mechanical fastening method, detecting debonding as early as possible could minimize the overall maintenance costs. For this reason, a vast amount of research in the nondestructive testing field is being conducted as we speak. However, most of the methods may require well-trained experts or heavy equipment. In this study, the piezoelectric (PZT) material-based method known as the electromechanical impedance technique is investigated to seek the possibility of making the technique very cheap and portable by temporarily attaching the sensor. Furthermore, ANSYS simulation studies using smaller PZT patches as small as 0.1 mm × 0.1 mm are simulated to investigate the impedance signatures acquired from the simulations. The results show the possibility of using smaller PZT patches compared to the conventional PZT sizes of 10 mm × 10 mm for a successful damage identification process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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11 pages, 20469 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Lock-In Thermography and Ultrasonic Testing of Impacted Basalt Fibers Reinforced Thermoplastic Matrix Composites

by Simone Boccardi, Natalino Daniele Boffa, Giovanni Maria Carlomagno, Giuseppe Del Core, Carosena Meola, Ernesto Monaco, Pietro Russo and Giorgio Simeoli

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(15), 3025; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9153025 - 26 Jul 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2381

Abstract

Basalt fibers are receiving increasing consideration because they seem to be adequate as reinforcement of composites and to comply with the environmental safeguard rules. However, many factors affect the performance of composite material, demanding specific testing; one may be performance assessment under impact tests. The attention of the present work is focused on the detection of impact damage in basalt-based composites with two non-destructive testing techniques: lock-in thermography (LT) and ultrasonic testing (UT). Two different types of materials are considered which both include basalt fibers as reinforcement but two different matrices: Polyamide and polypropylene. Polypropylene is used either pure or modified with the addition of a coupling agent; the latter improves the fiber/matrix interface strength, giving in practice, a material of different characteristics. Specimens are first subjected to low-velocity impact tests and then non-destructively examined with the two above mentioned techniques. The obtained results are analyzed and compared to highlight the advantages and limitations of the two techniques to detect impact damage in basalt-based composites. Both techniques seem effective for the inspection of polyamide/basalt composite; in particular, there is a general agreement between results. Conversely, UT seems not suitable for the inspection of polypropylene/basalt composites because of their superficial porosity, while lock-in thermography is effective also for this type of composite material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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14 pages, 5405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Residual Elastic Properties of a Damaged Composite Plate with Combined Damage Index and Finite Element Methods

by Carlo Boursier Niutta, Andrea Tridello, Raffaele Ciardiello, Giovanni Belingardi and Davide Salvatore Paolino

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(12), 2579; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9122579 - 25 Jun 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2600

Abstract

In structural component applications the use of composite materials is increasing thanks to their optimal mechanical characteristics. However, the complexity of the damage evolution in composite materials significantly limits their widespread diffusion. Non-destructive tests are thus becoming ever more important. The detecting Damage [...] Read more.

D I_{d}

) technique has been recently brought in the realm of the non-destructive characterization tests for components made of composite material. In contrast to other techniques, this methodology allows to quantitatively assess local residual properties. In this paper, the

D I_{d}

technique is adopted in combination with the finite element method. The mechanical response of two composite plates (an 8-layer twill fabric carbon/epoxy) subjected to four-point bending test is firstly used to tune a finite element model of the laminate. Then, an undamaged laminate of the same composite material is progressively damaged through repeated four-point bending tests. Local residual elastic properties are mapped on the plate through the

D I_{d}

technique. A continuous polynomial curve has been considered to account for the variation of the elastic modulus in the finite element model. The resulting force-displacement curve of the numerical analysis is compared to experimental data of damaged plate, resulting in very good agreement. The combination of the experimental activity and the numerical finite element analysis points out the accuracy of the

D I_{d}

methodology in assessing local residual elastic properties of composite materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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11 pages, 2619 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study of Defect Localization in a Cross-Ply Fiber Reinforced Composite with Diffuse Ultrasonic Waves

by Qi Zhu, Yuxuan Ding, Dawei Tu, Haiyan Zhang and Yue Peng

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(11), 2334; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112334 - 6 Jun 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2348

Abstract

Diffuse wave inspection benefits from multiple scattering and is suitable for the nondestructive testing of complex structures with high sensitivity. This paper aims to localize the defect in a cross-ply carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite with the diffuse wave field experimentally based on the Locadiff technique. Firstly, the wave diffusivity and dissipation parameters are determined from the diffuse waveforms. Great dissipation is found for this composite plate due to its strong viscoelasticity, which makes the amplitude attenuate fast in a short propagation distance. The signal-to-noise ratios degrade significantly at off-axis directions so that only measurements along the X and Y axes are chosen. Secondly, the decorrelation coefficients are determined using the stretching technique. The decorrelation coefficients decrease initially due to the interaction between the wave fields and the defect and subsequently increase due to the low signal-to-noise ratio at the later time. Based on these data, a sensitivity time domain is chosen to center at t = 50 μs. Together with the defect sensitivity kernel calculated under constant diffusion property assumption, the defect is localized at [270 mm, 265 mm] compared to [300 mm, 280 mm] in the final reference state. This method is promising for early damage detection in fiber reinforced composite structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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16 pages, 6367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nondestructive Ultrasonic Inspection of Composite Materials: A Comparative Advantage of Phased Array Ultrasonic

by Hossein Taheri and Ahmed Arabi Hassen

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(8), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9081628 - 19 Apr 2019

Cited by 80 | Viewed by 8792

Abstract

Carbon- and glass fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP and GFRP) composite materials have been used in many industries such as aerospace and automobile because of their outstanding strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. The quality of these materials is important for safe operation. Nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques are an effective way to inspect these composites. While ultrasonic NDT has previously been used for inspection of composites, conventional ultrasonic NDT, using single element transducers, has limitations such as high attenuation and low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Using phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) techniques, signals can be generated at desired distances and angles. These capabilities provide promising results for composites where the anisotropic structure makes signal evaluation challenging. Defect detection in composites based on bulk and guided waves are studied. The capability of the PAUT and its sensitivity to flaws were evaluated by comparing the signal characteristics to the conventional method. The results show that flaw sizes as small as 0.8 mm with penetration depth up to 25 mm can be detected using PAUT, and the result signals have better characteristics than the conventional ultrasonic technique. In addition, it has been shown that guided wave generated by PAUT also has outstanding capability of flaw detection in composite materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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16 pages, 7686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Nonlinear Method for Characterizing Discrete Defects in Thick Multilayer Composites

by Guoyang Teng, Xiaojun Zhou, Chenlong Yang and Xiang Zeng

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(6), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9061183 - 20 Mar 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2385

Abstract

Discrete defects in thick composites are difficult to detect for the small size and the structure noise that appears in multilayer composites. In this paper, a nonlinear method, called recurrence analysis, has been used for characterizing discrete defects in thick section Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) with complex lay-up. A 10 mm thick CFRP specimen with nearly zero porosity was selected, and blind holes with different diameters were artificially constructed in the specimen. The second half of the backscattered signal was analyzed by recurrence analysis for areas with or without a defect. The recurrence plot (RP) visualized the chaotic behavior of the ultrasonic pulse, and the statistical results of recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) characterized the instability of the signal and the effect of defects. The results show that the RQA variable differences are related to the size of blind holes, which give a probable detection of discrete geometric changes in thick multilayer composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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11 pages, 11478 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Situ Analysis of Plaster Detachment by Impact Tests

by Alessandro Grazzini

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(2), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9020258 - 12 Jan 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2465

Abstract

The frescoed surfaces of historical buildings may be subject to detachment due to various causes of deterioration. A new non-destructive experimental methodology is described to assess in situ the safety against plaster detachments from historical wall surfaces. Through small and punctual impacts exerted with a specific hammer on the plastered surface it is possible to evaluate the level of the plaster’s detachment. A case study at Palazzo Birago in Turin (Italy) is described to give an example of the application of this innovative technique on frescoed surfaces of historical vaults. The test allows to evaluate the safety of frescoed decorations without affecting the material consistency or creating damage, therefore, making it very suitable in the field of architectural heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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9 pages, 4733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Contact Ultrasonic Inspection of Impact Damage in Composite Laminates by Visualization of Lamb wave Propagation

by Nobuyuki Toyama, Jiaxing Ye, Wataru Kokuyama and Shigeki Yashiro

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9010046 - 24 Dec 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4718

Abstract

This study demonstrates a rapid non-contact ultrasonic inspection technique by visualization of Lamb wave propagation for detecting impact damage in carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates. We have developed an optimized laser ultrasonic imaging system, which consists of a rapid pulsed laser scanning unit for ultrasonic generation and a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) unit for ultrasonic reception. CFRP laminates were subjected to low-velocity impact to introduce barely visible impact damage. In order to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the detected ultrasonic signal, retroreflective tape and a signal averaging process were used. We thus successfully visualized the propagation of the pulsed Lamb A₀ mode in the CFRP laminates without contact. Interactions between the Lamb waves and impact damage were clearly observed and the damage was easily detected through the change in wave propagation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the damage could be rapidly detected without signal averaging. This method has significant advantages in detecting damage compared to the conventional method using a contact resonant ultrasonic transducer due to the absence of the ringing phenomenon when using the LDV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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12 pages, 1687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Defect Detection of Aluminum Alloy Wheels in Radiography Images Using Adaptive Threshold and Morphological Reconstruction

by Junsheng Zhang, Zhijie Guo, Tengyun Jiao and Mingquan Wang

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2365; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122365 - 23 Nov 2018

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5055

Abstract

In low-pressure casting, aluminum alloy wheels are prone to internal defects such as gas holes and shrinkage cavities, which call for X-ray inspection to ensure quality. Automatic defect segmentation of X-ray images is an important task in X-ray inspection of wheels. For this, a solution is proposed here that combines adaptive threshold segmentation algorithm and mathematical morphology reconstruction. First, the X-ray image of the wheel is smoothed, and then the smoothed image is subtracted from the original image, and the resulting difference image is binarized; the binary image resulting from the low threshold is taken as the marker image, and that from the high threshold is taken as mask image, and mathematical morphology reconstruction is performed on the two images, with the resulting image being the preliminary result of the wheel defect segmentation. Finally, with area and diameter parameters as the conditions, the preliminary segmentation result is analyzed, and the defect regions satisfying the conditions are taken as the ultimate result of the whole solution. Experiments proved the feasibility of the above solution, which is found capable of extracting different types of wheel defects satisfactorily. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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20 pages, 15238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Real Defect Geometry and Its Detection Using Passive Magnetic Inspection (PMI) Method

by Milad Mosharafi, SeyedBijan Mahbaz and Maurice B. Dusseault

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(7), 1147; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8071147 - 14 Jul 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4022

Abstract

Reinforced concrete is the most commonly used material in urban, road, and industrial structures. Quantifying the condition of the reinforcing steel can help manage the human and financial risks that arise from unexpected reinforced concrete structure functional failure. Also, a quantitative time history of reinforcing steel condition can be used to make decisions on rehabilitation, decommissioning, or replacement. The self-magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials is useful for quantitative condition assessment. In this study, a ferromagnetic rebar with artificial defects was scanned by a three-dimensional (3D) laser scanner. The obtained point cloud was imported as a real geometry to a finite element software platform; its self-magnetic behavior was then simulated under the influence of Earth’s magnetic field. The various passive magnetic parameters that can be measured were reviewed for different conditions. Statistical studies showed that 0.76% of the simulation-obtained data of the rebar surface was related to the defect locations. Additionally, acceptable coincidences were confirmed between the magnetic properties from numerical simulation and from experimental outputs, most noticeably at hole locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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Review

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16 pages, 2538 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Non-Destructive Damage Detection Methods for Steel Wire Ropes

by Ping Zhou, Gongbo Zhou, Zhencai Zhu, Zhenzhi He, Xin Ding and Chaoquan Tang

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(13), 2771; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9132771 - 9 Jul 2019

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 12143

Abstract

As an important load-bearing component, steel wire ropes (WRs) are widely used in complex systems such as mine hoists, cranes, ropeways, elevators, oil rigs, and cable-stayed bridges. Non-destructive damage detection for WRs is an important way to assess damage states to guarantee WR’s reliability and safety. With intelligent sensors, signal processing, and pattern recognition technology developing rapidly, this field has made great progress. However, there is a lack of a systematic review on technologies or methods introduced and employed, as well as research summaries and prospects in recent years. In order to bridge this gap, and to promote the development of non-destructive detection technology for WRs, we present an overview of non-destructive damage detection research of WRs and discuss the core issues on this topic in this paper. First, the WRs’ damage type is introduced, and its causes are explained. Then, we summarize several main non-destructive detection methods for WRs, including electromagnetic detection method, optical detection method, ultrasonic guided wave detection method, and acoustic emission detection method. Finally, a prospect is put forward. Based on the review of papers, we provide insight about the future of the non-destructive damage detection methods for steel WRs to a certain extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nondestructive Testing in Composite Materials)

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