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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Robotics and Automation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 November 2026 | Viewed by 6179

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Carlo De Benedictis

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy
Interests: biomechanics; automation; robotics, control; mechatronics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Carmen Visconte

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy
Interests: exoskeletons; fluid dynamics; automation; robotics

Dr. Maria Paterna

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, 10129 Turin, Italy
Interests: exoskeletons; biomechanics; automation

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Exoskeletons, i.e., active or passive wearable devices that enhance or support human movement, have rapidly emerged as a promising technology with the potential to revolutionize a wide range of fields.

A widely accepted classification of such devices consists of passive and active exoskeletons: passive devices rely on mechanical components, such as springs and dampers, to store and release energy. This mechanism provides support to the user and reduces the metabolic cost associated with physically demanding tasks, such as repetitive movements or carrying heavy loads. Active exoskeletons incorporate actuators to provide powered assistance to the user, in some cases effectively augmenting strength and endurance.

Exoskeleton research is being conducted in a variety of applications, including healthcare and rehabilitation, where exoskeletons show promise in aiding recovery from neurological and musculoskeletal disorders; industry and manufacturing, where they can enhance worker capabilities and reduce workplace injuries; military and defense; and assistive technology, empowering individuals with disabilities to regain mobility and independence. Despite the encouraging outcomes in each of these fields, there is not yet widespread use of exoskeletons in real-world applications. The acceptance of exoskeletons by the end user depends on the usability, intuitiveness, and reliability of the mechanical design, as well as accuracy and safety of the control. This Special Issue aims to present an overview of recent developments in the field of exoskeletons with a focus on innovative design and control strategies that can improve the acceptance level of exoskeleton systems. Topics may include (but are not limited to) the following:

Advanced Control Strategies: The development of intelligent algorithms and advanced control systems is crucial for improving human–machine interaction, enabling exoskeletons to adapt to individual users and provide personalized assistance;
Soft and Flexible Exosuits: Researchers are exploring novel materials and innovative designs to create lightweight, comfortable, and adaptable exoskeletons that can be seamlessly integrated into daily life;
Bio-inspired Designs: Scientists are drawing inspiration from biological systems, such as the musculoskeletal structure of animals, to enhance exoskeleton performance, efficiency, and adaptability;
Human–Robot Collaboration: Integrating exoskeletons with collaborative robots (cobots) has the potential to significantly enhance productivity and safety in industrial settings;
Clinical Applications: The rigorous evaluation of exoskeletons for rehabilitation purposes, such as stroke rehabilitation, spinal cord injury rehabilitation, and gait assistance for elderly individuals, is essential to demonstrate their efficacy and optimize their therapeutic benefits;
Ethical and Societal Implications: As exoskeleton technology advances, it is crucial to address the ethical considerations and potential societal impact associated with their widespread adoption.

Particular attention is given to the outcomes of experimental research; however, theoretical papers are also encouraged for submission.

Dr. Carlo De Benedictis
Dr. Carmen Visconte
Dr. Maria Paterna
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

exoskeleton
wearable devices
human augmentation
rehabilitation
biomechanics
human–robot interaction
assistive technology
ergonomics
human–machine interface
exosuit

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1576 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Lumbar Loads and Neuromuscular Responses with an Occupational Soft-Back Exoskeleton During a Repetitive Sagittal Handling Task

by Clément Thevenot, Arthur Favennec, Xavier Pierre and Guillaume Mornieux

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(9), 4263; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16094263 - 27 Apr 2026

Viewed by 178

Abstract

Back-support exoskeletons have emerged as promising ergonomic interventions to assist workers during repetitive manual handling tasks, particularly when task redesign or automation is not feasible. However, limited research has examined the evolution of lumbar biomechanical parameters throughout the task. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the CORFOR^® soft-back exoskeleton on lumbar loads at L5-S1, muscle activity, and perceived exertion during a repetitive sagittal-plane manual handling task in eleven young shealthy male participants over a 4-min protocol. Results showed a significant increase in perceived lower back exertion over time. However, no significant difference in perceived exertion was found between EXO and FREE conditions despite reductions of 11–13%. Lumbar loads at L5-S1 were significantly reduced when using the soft-back exoskeleton in both lowering and lifting phases (−14% for peak flexion–extension moment, −6% for compression force, and −10% for shear force). In addition, peak flexion–extension moment and peak compression force significantly decreased over time. Significant interactions between exoskeleton use and time were observed for peak L5-S1 flexion–extension moment and right ES muscle activity. Overall, these findings partially support our hypothesis, as the CORFOR^® reduced lumbar mechanical demands ES muscle activity, with some additional time-dependent effects observed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Exoskeletons)

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26 pages, 6226 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experimental Validation of a Unidirectional Cable-Driven Exoskeleton for Upper Limb Rehabilitation

by Simone Leone, Francesco Lago, Giuseppe Lavia, Francesco Pio Macrì, Francesco Sgamba, Alessandro Tozzo, Danilo Adamo, Jorge Manuel Navarrete Avila and Giuseppe Carbone

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(22), 11996; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152211996 - 12 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1561

Abstract

Upper limb disabilities resulting from stroke affect millions worldwide, yet current rehabilitation systems face limitations in portability, cost-effectiveness, and multi-joint integration. This study presents a cable-driven parallel exoskeleton integrating elbow, wrist, and finger assistance into a single portable device. The design strategically separates actuation components, housing all motors in a backpack unit, while limb-mounted modules serve as cable routing guides, achieving seven degrees of freedom within practical constraints of portability (1.2–1.5 kg) and cost-effectiveness (3D-printed components). The device incorporates seven servo motors controlled via Arduino with IMU feedback and PID algorithms. Kinematic and dynamic analyses informed mechanical design, while ARMAX system identification enabled controller optimization achieving 87.96% model fit. Experimental validation with eight healthy participants performing four upper limb exercises demonstrated consistent trends toward reduced activation in four monitored agonist muscles with exoskeleton assistance (21.3% average reduction, p = 0.087), with moderate effect sizes for proximal muscles (Cohen’s d = 0.70–0.79) and significant reductions in brachioradialis during radial/ulnar deviation (23.4%, p = 0.045). These findings provide preliminary evidence of the device’s potential to reduce muscular effort during assisted movements, warranting further clinical validation with patient populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Exoskeletons)

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20 pages, 6987 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Performance of Table ASSIST-EW: An Assisting Device for Elbow and Wrist

by Earnest Ugonna Ofonaike and Marco Ceccarelli

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(21), 11482; https://doi.org/10.3390/app152111482 - 27 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1024

Abstract

This paper presents the design and performance of Table ASSIST-EW, a portable adaptable user-friendly cable-driven device that can be used on a table to support elbow and wrist exercises. This device is intended for older adults who experience arm weakness due to aging. Table ASSIST-EW has been developed based on results from testing and practical insights from biomechanics and robotics to address challenges in human–robot interaction that limit the use of assistive technologies. Table ASSIST-EW is designed to assist natural arm movements during motion exercise and rehabilitation, making the motion assistance easy and easily engaged for users. The design process is explained starting from identifying user needs up to the creation of a prototype. A key feature of Table ASSIST-EW is its cable-driven actuation system. The design is inspired by a previous device, L-CADEL, which went through several design revisions. The lessons learned from L-CADEL’s development and test experiences suggested design solutions for Table ASSIST-EW’s structure, function, and use. This paper discusses the background, design requirements, system development, and performance evaluation. The results show that the Table ASSIST-EW device meets important goals in usability and functionality, making it a promising solution for robotic rehabilitation and motion exercise for the elderly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Exoskeletons)

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27 pages, 5545 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Predicting Joint Rotation Angles Through Mechanomyography Signals and the Broad Learning System

by Yu Bai, Xiaorong Guan, Huibin Li, Shi Cheng, Rui Zhang and Long He

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 6454; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15126454 - 8 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1413

Abstract

To address the limitation of current upper limb rehabilitation exoskeletons—where pattern recognition-based assistance disrupts patients’ continuous motion—this study proposes a mechanomyography-based model for predicting shoulder and elbow joint angles. Small contact microphones were employed to collect mechanomyography signals, leveraging their ability to capture vibration signals above 8 Hz, making them ideal for mechanomyography acquisition. After extracting raw mechanomyography data, a bandpass filter (10–50 Hz) was applied to eliminate low- and high-frequency noise. To reduce computational overhead during model training, a Broad Learning System was adopted, which iteratively refines predictions by incrementally expanding nodes in the feature and enhancement layers rather than adding hidden layers. The Slime Mold Algorithm was further used to optimize hyperparameters of the Broad Learning System, enhancing prediction accuracy. Experimental results demonstrate that mechanomyography signals exhibit a typical central frequency range of 10–50 Hz, and the Slime Mold Algorithm-optimized Broad Learning System model achieved a minimum coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.978, effectively predicting arm joint angles. This approach shows promise for exoskeletons, combining high control accuracy, real-time joint angle prediction, and computational efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Exoskeletons)

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Review

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25 pages, 1749 KB

Open AccessReview

Material and Technological Optimization of a 3D-Printed Hand Exoskeleton Within the Industry 4.0/5.0/6.0 Paradigms: A Short Review

by Izabela Rojek, Jakub Kopowski, Agnieszka Osińska and Dariusz Mikołajewski

Appl. Sci. 2026, 16(3), 1538; https://doi.org/10.3390/app16031538 - 3 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1128

Abstract

3D-printed hand exoskeletons are important because they enable the creation of affordable, lightweight, and highly customizable assistive and rehabilitation devices tailored to individual patient needs. Their rapid production and design flexibility accelerate innovation, improve access to therapies, and accelerate functional recovery for people with hand impairments. This article discusses the development of a hand exoskeleton using advanced additive manufacturing. It highlights how Industry 4.0 principles such as digital design, automation, and smart manufacturing enable precise prototyping and efficient use of materials. Moving on to Industry 5.0, the study highlights the role of human–machine collaboration, where customization and ergonomics are prioritized to ensure user comfort and rehabilitation effectiveness. The integration of AI-based generative design and digital twins (DTs) is explored as a path to Industry 6.0, where adaptive and self-optimizing systems support continuous improvement. The perspective of personal experience provides insight into practical challenges, including material selection, printing accuracy, and wearability. The results show how technological optimization can be used to reduce costs, improves efficiency and sustainability, and accelerates the personalization of medical devices. The article shows how evolving industrial paradigms are driving the design, manufacture, and refinement of 3D-printed hand exoskeletons, combining technological innovation with human-centered outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Exoskeletons)

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