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Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Welfare".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2023) | Viewed by 28942

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Mollie A. Bloomsmith

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Guest Editor

Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Interests: animal Behavior, behavioral management; primates; welfare; refinements

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am writing to let you know that the open-access peer-reviewed journal Animals is developing a Special Issue titled “Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare”, and I am serving as the Guest Editor. I am pleased to invite you to submit an article on this topic.

I am interested in receiving manuscripts that provide strong empirical data to address topics relevant to any of the many issues associated with the well-being of individual chimpanzees, as well as the welfare of larger populations. The Special Issue will feature research that investigates, evaluates, helps to understand, and promotes the welfare of chimpanzees.

Under the rubric of chimpanzee welfare, the focus will be broad. Manuscripts will be considered that address welfare issues for chimpanzees living in sanctuaries, zoos, research facilities, and the wild. Scientific papers should report data based on robust methods, and empirically based literature reviews will also be considered. Studies could include measures of behavior, health, cognition, affect, reproduction, temperament, and physiology, as long as the focus is on animal welfare. Contemporary topics such as evaluating welfare in sanctuaries, the use of technology to improve welfare, the transfer of chimpanzees between facilities, fission/fusion management systems, the resocialization of chimpanzees with atypical social backgrounds, and individual differences in welfare-related needs are especially welcome.

I foresee that this volume will compile the most current and important appraisals of chimpanzee welfare, and will propel forward the field of welfare science with regard to this engaging species. I hope that the opportunity of submitting a manuscript to this Special Issue will be of interest to you. Please let me know if you would like to discuss potential contributions. Manuscript topics (abstracts) will be assessed for suitability by November 2021, and the manuscript submission deadline will be March 2022.

Dr. Mollie A. Bloomsmith
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

animal behavior
animal care
behavioral management
great apes
Pan troglodytes
psychological well-being
refinements

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Oral Lavender Therapy on Wounding in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

by Elizabeth R. Magden, Sarah Neal Webb, Susan P. Lambeth, Stephanie J. Buchl and Steven J. Schapiro

Animals 2023, 13(8), 1382; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13081382 - 18 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1615

Abstract

Lavender administration in humans has been shown to promote calmness without the side effects often observed with benzodiazepines. Studies in both humans and rodents have found that ingestion of oral lavender capsules resulted in significantly decreased anxiety. Additionally, mice developed an anti-conflict effect and humans increased socially inclusive behaviors. Given the safety of oral lavender oil and the observed benefits, we administered daily lavender capsules to six chimpanzees who exhibited conflict-instigating behaviors in an effort to further decrease our already low levels of wounding. We compared the total number of wounds in 25 chimpanzees housed with the six lavender-treated chimpanzees in five different social groups (1) prior to administration of daily oral lavender capsules to (2) total wounds during daily oral lavender capsule treatment. We hypothesized that lavender therapy treatment would reduce overall wounding in the social groups. Surprisingly, overall wounding was higher during the lavender treatment period (p = 0.01), yet the percentage of wounds requiring treatment significantly decreased during the lavender therapy period (36% vs. 21%, p = 0.02). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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15 pages, 2757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Locomotion as a Measure of Well-Being in Captive Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

by Sarah Neal Webb and Steven Schapiro

Animals 2023, 13(5), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13050803 - 23 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1925

Abstract

Locomotion in non-human primates, including walking, climbing, and brachiating among other types of movement (but not pacing), is a species-typical behavior that varies with age, social housing conditions, and environmental factors (e.g., season, food availability, physical housing conditions). Given that captive primates are typically observed to engage in lower levels of locomotor behaviors than their wild counterparts, increases in locomotion are generally considered to be indicative of improved welfare in captivity. However, increases in locomotion do not always occur with improvements in welfare, and sometimes occur under conditions of negative arousal. The use of time spent in locomotion as a welfare indicator in studies of well-being is relatively limited. We conducted focal animal observations on 120 captive chimpanzees across a series of studies and found higher percentages of time spent in locomotion (1) upon transfer to a new enclosure type, (2) in larger groups with wider within-group age ranges, and fewer males, and (3) with participation in an experimental medication choice paradigm. We also found that, among geriatric chimpanzees, those housed in nongeriatric groups exhibited more locomotion than those living in geriatric groups. Lastly, locomotion was significantly negatively correlated with several indicators of poor welfare and significantly positively correlated with behavioral diversity, one indicator of positive welfare. Overall, the increases in time spent in locomotion observed in these studies were part of an overall behavioral pattern indicative of enhanced welfare, suggesting that an increase in time spent in locomotion itself may be an indicator of enhanced welfare. As such, we suggest that levels of locomotion, which are typically assessed in most behavioral experiments, may be used more explicitly as indicators of welfare in chimpanzees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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18 pages, 1457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Listening to Their Nights: Sleep Disruptions in Captive Housed Chimpanzees Affect Their Daytime Behavior

by Pablo R. Ayuso, Olga Feliu, David Riba and Dietmar Crailsheim

Animals 2023, 13(4), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040696 - 16 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1733

Abstract

Chimpanzee’s nocturnal sleep is a dynamic and complex process, still not fully understood. As in humans, not getting enough quality sleep due to frequent or lasting disruptions may affect their physical and mental health, hence wellbeing, which may be reflected in their daytime behavior. This study aims to understand the impact of abiotic factors, such as temperature and humidity on the nocturnal activity as well as the impact of nocturnal awakening events on daytime behavior in sanctuary-housed chimpanzees. We monitored noisy nocturnal activity through audio recordings for one year, documenting the number and duration of sound events produced by chimpanzees to indicate sleep fragmentation and disruption intensity, respectively. Our results indicate that indoor temperature and humidity indeed influence the chimpanzee’s nocturnal activity. Furthermore, sleep fragmentation and intensity of nocturnal events significantly influenced the following day’s behavior. After nights marked by frequent and/or intense sleep disruptions, higher levels of inactivity, and abnormal and self-directed behaviors were observed, and chimpanzees spent more time on affiliative interactions and in social proximity. These findings highlight the importance of controlling factors influencing nocturnal sleep quality. Furthermore, we demonstrated that economic audio recordings used to monitor nocturnal activity, provide insights into the chimpanzee’s behavior and wellbeing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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13 pages, 315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Reference Intervals into Chimpanzee Welfare Research

by Jessica C. Whitham, Katie Hall, Lisa K. Lauderdale, Jocelyn L. Bryant and Lance J. Miller

Animals 2023, 13(4), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040639 - 12 Feb 2023

Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Animal welfare researchers are committed to developing novel approaches to enhance the quality of life of chimpanzees living in professional care. To systematically monitor physical, mental, and emotional states, welfare scientists highlight the importance of integrating non-invasive, animal-based welfare indicators. This study aimed to create species-specific reference intervals for behavioral measures and physiological biomarkers. Specifically, we analyzed data from 40 adult chimpanzees (22 females, 18 males) residing at 16 zoological facilities to generate reference intervals for behavioral states and events, behavioral diversity, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCMs), and fecal immunoglobulin-A (IgA). Comparisons of sex and age using linear regression models revealed significant differences for several behaviors. The proportion of time spent engaged in mutual/multiple social grooming significantly decreased as individuals aged. Furthermore, males spent a higher proportion of time performing aggressive contact behaviors and displaying to other chimpanzees when compared to females. Males also performed sexual examination behaviors at a higher rate than females. Behavioral diversity, fecal GCM, and fecal IgA did not vary by sex or age. In the future, values for individual chimpanzees can be compared to the ranges reported here for particular age/sex classes. Ultimately, animal care professionals can utilize reference intervals to make evidence-based decisions regarding management practices and environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

30 pages, 1697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in U.S. Zoos, Sanctuaries, and Research Facilities: A Survey-Based Comparison of Species-Typical Behaviors

by Andrea W. Clay, Stephen R. Ross, Susan Lambeth, Maribel Vazquez, Sarah Breaux, Rhonda Pietsch, Amy Fultz, Michael Lammey, Sarah L. Jacobson, Jaine E. Perlman and Mollie A. Bloomsmith

Animals 2023, 13(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13020251 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2410

Abstract

A survey was sent to zoos, research facilities, and sanctuaries which housed chimpanzees. Data collected included information about 1122 chimpanzees’ age, sex, social group-size, rearing history, and enclosure. Respondents were also asked to indicate if certain behaviors had been observed in each chimpanzee over the prior two years. Species- typical behaviors (STBs) were queried, including copulation, tool-use, nest-building, and social grooming. Tool-use was reported present for 94.3% of the sample (n = 982), active social grooming for 85.7% (n = 1121), copulation for 68.3% (n = 863) and nest-building for 58.9% (n = 982). Of the subjects for whom we had data regarding all four STBs (n = 860), 45.6% were reported to engage in all four. Logistic regression analyses using forward Wald criteria were conducted to determine the best model for each STB based on the predictors of age, sex, rearing history, group-size, facility-type, and a sex-by-rearing interaction. The best model for copulation (χ²(6) = 124.62, p < 0.001) included rearing, group-size, facility-type, and the sex-by-rearing interaction. Chimpanzees were more likely to copulate if they were mother-reared, in larger groups, living in research facilities, and, if not mother-reared (NOTMR), more likely to copulate if they were female. The best model for tool-use retained the predictors of age category, facility-type, and sex-by-rearing (χ²(5) = 55.78, p < 0.001). Chimpanzees were more likely to use tools if they were adult, living in research facilities, and if NOTMR, were female. The best model for nest-building included facility-type and rearing (χ²(3) = 205.71, p < 0.001). Chimpanzees were more likely to build nests if they were MR and if they were living in zoos or in sanctuaries. The best model for active social grooming retained the predictors of age, sex, rearing, and type of facility (χ²(6) = 102.15, p < 0.001). Chimpanzees were more likely to engage in active social grooming if they were immature, female, mother-reared, and living in zoos. This research provides a basic behavioral profile for many chimpanzees living under human care in the United States and allows us to determine potential methods for improving the welfare of these and future chimpanzees in this population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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13 pages, 1380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Trauma Leaves No Social Signature in Sanctuary-Housed Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

by Edwin J. C. van Leeuwen, Bernadette M. C. Bruinstroop and Daniel B. M. Haun

Animals 2023, 13(1), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13010049 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1598

Abstract

Negative early experiences can have detrimental effects on social functioning in later life, both in humans as well as in other socially-living animals. In zoo-housed chimpanzees, recent evidence suggests that there may be a lingering signature of early trauma on individuals’ social interaction tendencies as measured by social proximity and grooming. Here, we address whether a similar effect would be observable in chimpanzees living under semi-wild conditions in an African sanctuary. By analysing party size, close proximity and social grooming, we show that in this specific sanctuary, chimpanzees that suffered early trauma (n = 42) were socially indistinguishable from chimpanzees who were born and raised by their mothers in the sanctuary (n = 36). Our findings indicate that chimpanzees may not be irreversibly affected by early social trauma, possibly owing to rehabilitation in stable social groups in a semi-natural environment. Beyond identifying sanctuaries as valuable rehabilitation centres for orphaned chimpanzees, this study demonstrates a remarkable social flexibility in one of our closest living relatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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15 pages, 1113 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Preliminary Assessment of Compassion Fatigue in Chimpanzee Caregivers

by Mary Lee Jensvold

Animals 2022, 12(24), 3506; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12243506 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2079

Abstract

Compassion fatigue is defined as “traumatization of helpers through their efforts at helping others”. It has negative effects on clinicians including reduced satisfaction with work, fatigue, irritability, dread of going to work, and lack of joy in life. It is correlated with patients’ decreased satisfaction with care. Compassion fatigue occurs in a variety of helping professions including educators, social workers, mental health clinicians, and it also appears in nonhuman animal care workers. This study surveyed caregivers of chimpanzees using the ProQOL-V to assess the prevalence of compassion fatigue among this group. Compassion satisfaction is higher than many other types of animal care workers. Conversely, this group shows moderate levels of burnout and secondary traumatic stress; higher levels than other types of animal care workers and many medical professions. While compassion fatigue has an effect on the caregiver’s experience, it has potential to affect animal welfare. Caregivers are an integral part of the chimpanzee social network. Compassion fatigue affects the caregiver’s attitude, this could in turn affect the relationship and degrade the experience of care for captive chimpanzees. Compassion fatigue can be mitigated with professional development, mindfulness training, interrelationships among staff, and specialized training. This preliminary assessment indicates the work ahead is educating caregivers about compassion fatigue and implementing procedures in sanctuaries to mitigate burnout and secondary traumatic stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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21 pages, 3809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aggressive, Submissive, and Affiliative Behavior in Sanctuary Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) During Social Integration

by Amy Fultz, Akie Yanagi, Sarah Breaux and Leilani Beaupre

Animals 2022, 12(18), 2421; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12182421 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2380

Abstract

Chimp Haven is a sanctuary for chimpanzees being retired from biomedical research and from facilities that can no longer care for them. Chimpanzees often live in smaller groups in captive settings; however, Chimp Haven integrates them into larger, more species-typical groups. Social integrations, the process of introducing unfamiliar chimpanzees to one another, are often complex in terms of logistics and can be stressful due to the territorial nature of the animals, reduced space in captivity, and the fact that these situations are engineered by humans. From 2005 to 2015, Chimp Haven conducted 225 social integrations including 282 chimpanzees (male: n = 135; female: n = 147). Each integration involved 2 to 26 chimpanzees (mean = 9) and their age ranged from < one year old to 59 years old (mean = 30). We collected data ad libitum during the first 60 min after doors were opened between unfamiliar chimpanzees. The chimpanzees’ affiliative, aggressive, and submissive behaviors were examined, comparing the subject’s sex, rearing history, location/enclosure type, and group size impacts on these behaviors. The subject’s sex, location, and group size were associated with the frequency of affiliative behaviors observed during social integration. All variables except for group size were associated with the frequency of aggressive behavior. The frequency of submissive behavior differed based on the subject’s sex, rearing history, and group size. We were unable to make comparisons between successful and unsuccessful integrations, as most of these integrations were successful. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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22 pages, 1355 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Spatial Restriction Generates Deferred Limited Space Use in a Zoo-Housed Chimpanzee Group

by Luke Mangaliso Duncan, Chiara D’Egidio Kotze and Neville Pillay

Animals 2022, 12(17), 2207; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12172207 - 27 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2958

Abstract

Background: Appropriate space is considered paramount for good captive animal welfare. There has been a concerted effort by captive institutions, particularly zoos, to provide captive animals with relatively large, naturalistic enclosures which havehad demonstrated welfare benefits for animals. However, post-occupancy assessments of these enclosures tend to focus on short-term welfare-centredbehavioural effects or human perceptions of the enclosures and their effects and seldom consider spaceuse. We examined the space use of a group of eight captive chimpanzees 5 years after large-scale enclosure modification at the Johannesburg Zoo, South Africa. Methods: Instantaneous scan sampling was used to record behaviour and location of each chimpanzee at 5 min intervals in the new enclosure. From these 6.8 h of data, space-use patterns and subgroup (two or more chimpanzees within 10 m of each other) spacing were considered relative to local environmental variables, social conditions and the location and size of the previous smaller enclosures in which they had been kept. Results: Space use was heterogeneous, with some enclosure zones being used more than others, and 97.5% of subgroups restricted their spacing to the dimensions of the previous housing (10 m × 10 m). Conclusions: This pattern was not explained by individual behaviour, time of day, location, available space, weather, temperature or shade availability, inter-individual spacing or subgroup composition. We suggest the learned helplessness phenomenon may explain these observations and discuss the implications for both animal welfare and endangered species conservation.Regardless of the mechanism, we suggest that such effects could be avoided through the provision of large enclosures for captive animals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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13 pages, 297 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A 25-Year Retrospective Review of Mortality in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Accredited U.S. Zoos from a Management and Welfare Perspective

by Stephen R. Ross, Priyanka B. Joshi, Karen A. Terio and Kathryn C. Gamble

Animals 2022, 12(15), 1878; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12151878 - 22 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2217

Abstract

Understanding causes of death allows adjustment of health management strategies for animals in managed care. From 224 documented chimpanzee deaths occurring from 1995 to 2019 in 42 accredited U.S. zoos, post-mortem records and necropsy reports were analyzed for the primary cause of death, which were available for 214 individuals. In total, 37 cases of stillbirth and neonatal deaths were assessed (16.5%); however, the focus was otherwise placed on the remaining 177 cases in which the death occurred in individuals aged greater than 1 month. There were no sex-related differences in etiology; however, age variation in the cause of death was statistically significant (p < 0.001). Elderly (35 years and older) chimpanzees tended to die of intrinsic, often degenerative, etiologies, whereas infants, juveniles, and adolescents (less than 15 years) were more likely to be involved in fatal trauma. Overall, there were 27 deaths (15.3% of all post-neonatal deaths) related to trauma and 13 of these were directly or indirectly related to conspecific aggression. Understanding causes of mortality and the interrelation with management can benefit managed populations of chimpanzees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

19 pages, 4710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Behavioural Development of Three Former Pet Chimpanzees a Decade after Arrival at the MONA Sanctuary

by Olga Feliu, Marti Masip, Carmen Maté, Sònia Sánchez-López, Dietmar Crailsheim and Elfriede Kalcher-Sommersguter

Animals 2022, 12(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12020138 - 7 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2837

Abstract

Chimpanzees used as pets and in the entertainment industry endure detrimental living conditions from early infancy onwards. The preferred option for ending their existence as pet or circus chimpanzees is their rescue and transfer to a primate sanctuary that will provide them with optimal living and social conditions, so that they can thrive. In this case study, we had the rare opportunity to compare the activity budgets of three chimpanzees from their time as pets in 2004 to their time living at the MONA sanctuary in 2020, after almost a decade in the centre. We found their behaviour patterns changed in accordance with the sanctuaries’ rehabilitation objectives. Resting periods increased considerably while vigilance simultaneously declined sharply. Moreover, the chimpanzees’ social competence increased as allogrooming became the predominant social behaviour, and agonistic interactions diminished even though they were living within a larger social group at the sanctuary. All three chimpanzees expanded their allogrooming and proximity networks at the sanctuary, which included new group members, but they maintained the closest relationships to those conspecifics who they were rescued with. In conclusion, these findings suggest that the sanctuary environment and social group setting made it possible for these three chimpanzees to improve their social competence and increase their well-being over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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Review

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12 pages, 304 KiB

Open AccessReview

Wild Chimpanzee Welfare: A Focus on Nutrition, Foraging and Health to Inform Great Ape Welfare in the Wild and in Captivity

by Katie F. Gerstner and Jill D. Pruetz

Animals 2022, 12(23), 3370; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12233370 - 30 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3263

Abstract

Adequate nutrition is essential for individual well-being, survival and reproductive fitness. Yet, in wild animals, including great apes, scoring nutrition or health comes with many challenges. Here, we have two aims: first, broadly review the scientific literature regarding nutritional data on wild chimpanzee foods to get a better understanding what nutrients foods comprise of, and second, highlight important findings on wild chimpanzee nutrition and welfare pertaining to diet. We discuss variation in macro and micronutrients in food items consumed and their role in chimpanzee health across chimpanzee subspecies from multiple study sites. We found a lack of information pertaining to nutritional consumption rates of daily diets. Second, we call for a fresh, in-depth discussion on wild chimpanzee welfare issues is of foremost importance to inform conservation projects and particularly settings where humans and chimpanzees may interact, because such conversation can reveal how specific or general welfare measures can (a) inform our knowledge of an individual’s, group’s, and population’s welfare, (b) provide additional measures from the study of wild chimpanzee ecology that can guide the welfare of captive chimpanzees, and (c) can enable comparative study of welfare across wild populations. A summary of the current literature on approaches to measuring wild chimpanzee health and welfare status, to our knowledge, has yet to be done. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Chimpanzee Welfare)

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