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15 pages, 5314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Changes in the Gut Microbiota During Peripartum in Jennies

by Xinyue Wang, Yang Shao, Xiaoling Zhou, Zheng Li, Jingze Liu, Mingyao Tang, Yixin Yang and Liang Deng

Animals 2025, 15(9), 1337; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091337 - 6 May 2025

Abstract

The peripartum period is critical for breeding female donkeys (i.e., jennies) and ensuring the delivery of healthy neonatal foals. The gut microbiota deeply influences the host metabolism. This study aimed to investigate the dynamic changes in the gut microbiome during the peripartum period [...] Read more.

The peripartum period is critical for breeding female donkeys (i.e., jennies) and ensuring the delivery of healthy neonatal foals. The gut microbiota deeply influences the host metabolism. This study aimed to investigate the dynamic changes in the gut microbiome during the peripartum period in jennies. Fresh fecal samples of eight adult jennies were collected at the following seven sampling time points: 21, 7, and 3 days prepartum (G21, G7, and G3) and 1, 3, 7, and 14 days postpartum (L1, L3, L7, and L14). Sequencing of the V4 hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA genes was carried out using fecal samples to identify the differences in the microbiome across the peripartum period. Bacteroidota and Firmicutes were the most abundant bacterial phyla in the feces. Treponema and Lachnospiraceae XPB1014 group significantly increased in the L3 group compared to the G7 group (q < 0.05), and a decline trend was observed in L1 group around parturition. The genus Clostridium sensu stricto 1, family Clostridiaceae, and order Clostridiales were considered to be biomarkers of the L3 group. Among the 25 functional pathways detected by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis, beta lactam resistance, insulin resistance, and peptidases were the top three important pathways observed in the gut microbiota during the peripartum period in jennies. The gut microbial structure changed significantly at different time points during the peripartum period in jennies. These results contribute to a better understanding of the gut microbiota to ensure health care during important phases from late pregnancy to early lactation in jennies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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13 pages, 2356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Inhibin Immunization on Reproductive Hormones and Testicular Morphology of Dezhou Donkeys During the Non-Breeding Season

by Muhammad Faheem Akhtar, Muhammad Umar, Wenqiong Chai, Liangliang Li, Ejaz Ahmad and Changfa Wang

Animals 2025, 15(6), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15060813 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 485

Abstract

The present study was designed to investigate the potential role of inhibin immunization on plasma hormone concentration and testicular histoarchitecture of Dezhou donkeys in the nonbreeding season (November–February). For this purpose, adult Dezhou donkeys (n = 30) were equally divided into groups [...] Read more.

The present study was designed to investigate the potential role of inhibin immunization on plasma hormone concentration and testicular histoarchitecture of Dezhou donkeys in the nonbreeding season (November–February). For this purpose, adult Dezhou donkeys (n = 30) were equally divided into groups A, B, and C. Group A was actively immunized with 3 mg inhibin, group B with (1.5 mg), and group C was immunized with Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and served as a control. All animals in groups A and B were given a primary dose of inhibin (INH) antigen, i.e., 3 mg and 1.5 mg on day 1, followed by a booster dose on the 23rd day of the experiment. Blood samples were collected on the 21st, 28th, 34th, and 40th days of the experiment. Primary and booster INH immunization (3 mg and 1.5 mg) slightly elevated the plasma hormone concentrations of FSH, LH, AMH, and Activin A. The number of spermatogonia was significantly higher in group A as compared to group C on the 28th day of the experiment. Inhibin immunization also caused apoptosis in testicular histoarchitecture. In conclusion, Inhibin immunization can potentially improve the reproductive efficiency of Dezhou donkeys in a nonbreeding season by elevating plasma hormone concentrations of FSH, LH, AMH, and Activin A. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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14 pages, 623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Variation in Essential Minerals, Trace Elements, and Potentially Toxic Elements in Donkey Milk from Banat and Balkan Breeds in the Zasavica Nature Reserve

by Dragana Ljubojević Pelić, Nenad Popov, Ema Gardić, Suzana Vidaković Knežević, Marina Žekić, Vladimir Gajdov and Milica Živkov Baloš

Animals 2025, 15(6), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15060791 - 11 Mar 2025

Viewed by 524

Abstract

Donkey milk is highly valued for its unique nutritional characteristics and hypoallergenic properties. However, limited data exist on its mineral composition and potential contaminants. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the concentration of selected essential and toxic elements from Banat and Balkan donkey [...] Read more.

Donkey milk is highly valued for its unique nutritional characteristics and hypoallergenic properties. However, limited data exist on its mineral composition and potential contaminants. This study aimed to comprehensively analyze the concentration of selected essential and toxic elements from Banat and Balkan donkey breeds reared under extensive organic conditions (free-range) across different seasons. The focus was on determining the concentrations of essential minerals and trace elements (Ca, P, Na, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Se), and potentially toxic elements (As, Pb, Hg, Cd). Samples were collected monthly over one year, with nine pooled samples per season. Mineral elements were determined using a validated ICP-MS method. The mineral content ranges (mg/kg) were Ca (588.9–744.4), P (355.6–533.3), Mg (71.1–84.4), K (444.4–711.1), Na (355.6–444.4), with trace elements (mg/kg) including Zn (2.06–2.21), Cu (0.31–0.68), and Se (0.02–0.05). Potentially toxic elements were within safe limits, with the exception that Pb levels exceeded permissible limits in two samples. Statistically significant seasonal variations were observed for Ca, P, K, As, and Cu. Donkey milk from both breeds was rich in minerals and low in contaminants. This research highlights the need for further studies on the nutritional and safety aspects of donkey milk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

17 pages, 3067 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Probiotic Characterization of Lactic Acid Bacteria from Donkey Feces in China

by Yanqiu Wu, Shousong Yue, Jinhui Yu, Fei Bian, Gao Chen and Yan Zhang

Animals 2025, 15(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15020207 - 14 Jan 2025

Viewed by 967

Abstract

Probiotics are beneficial to humans and animals and often used for regulating immunity, intestinal microbiota balance, and animal growth performance. Donkey husbandry has boomed in China in recent years and there is an urgent need for probiotics effective for improving donkey health. However, [...] Read more.

Probiotics are beneficial to humans and animals and often used for regulating immunity, intestinal microbiota balance, and animal growth performance. Donkey husbandry has boomed in China in recent years and there is an urgent need for probiotics effective for improving donkey health. However, studies on potential probiotic strains isolated from donkeys are scarce. This project aimed to screen LAB strains from donkey feces, detect their antimicrobial activity and evaluate their probiotic characteristics in vitro. Thirteen LAB isolates showed different degrees of antimicrobial activity against four indicator bacteria: three common pathogens (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella typhimurium) and one pathogen restricted to equines (Salmonella. abortus equi), eight of which could inhibit all four pathogens. Seven isolates showed higher tolerance to low pH and bile salts, with >50% and >60% survival rates, respectively. Five of them had more than 50% survival rate to artificial gastric and intestinal fluids. Only three isolates possessed good properties, with >40% auto-aggregation, >40% hydrophobicity, and high co-aggregation with the indicator pathogens. An L9 isolate, identified as Ligilactobacillus salivarius, was sensitive to most antibiotics tested. Overall, these results indicate that the L. salivarius L9 isolate meets the requirements of the probiotics selection criteria in vitro and can potentially be developed as a probiotic for donkeys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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27 pages, 1565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radiographic Morphometric Measurements of the Donkey’s Distal Hind Limb

by Kyra Schaus, Juliana Wacker, Anabell Jandowsky, Kathrin Büttner, Michael Röcken and Claus Peter Bartmann

Animals 2025, 15(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15010022 - 25 Dec 2024

Viewed by 842

Abstract

Morphometric measurements of the toe serve as a reference for the objective assessment of the presence of a pathological condition and as a guide for the correct trimming of the hooves. Therefore, the anatomical differences between horses and donkeys oblige an autonomous database [...] Read more.

Morphometric measurements of the toe serve as a reference for the objective assessment of the presence of a pathological condition and as a guide for the correct trimming of the hooves. Therefore, the anatomical differences between horses and donkeys oblige an autonomous database with reference values for the donkey. The aim of this study was therefore to provide readings of the distal hind limb on radiographs of donkeys. Radiographs of the distal hind limb in two projections of 41 generally sound donkeys without lameness in walk were taken after previous hoof trimming and preparation according to a standardized radiographic procedure. A total of 16 lengths and 9 angles were measured and statistically analyzed in each hoof. The dorsal hoof wall is on average 70 to 80 mm long and angled at 55°; the coffin bone runs parallel to the hoof wall. The average founder distance is 17 mm, and the mean sole thickness is 14 mm. The heel angle averages 52°, which is slightly flatter than the hoof wall angle. Correlations with weight and height are observed. Concluding, the morphometric measurements confirm the differences between horses’ reported normal anatomy and the presented donkeys. Disorders can be detected by applying the measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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14 pages, 786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preserving Mediterranean Donkeys: A Study on Milk Production and Nutritional Benefits

by Mohamed Aroua, Antonella Fatica, Samia Ben Said, Mokhtar Mahouachi and Elisabetta Salimei

Animals 2024, 14(24), 3713; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14243713 - 23 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 808

Abstract

The aim of the study was to model lactation curves and assess the physicochemical properties, amino acid, and fatty acid profiles of milk from two Mediterranean donkey populations, Masri (n = 14) and North African (n = 14), using the Wood model. Over [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to model lactation curves and assess the physicochemical properties, amino acid, and fatty acid profiles of milk from two Mediterranean donkey populations, Masri (n = 14) and North African (n = 14), using the Wood model. Over a lactation period of 205 ± 12.5 days, North African donkeys produced more milk (188.66 ± 7.19 kg) than Masri donkeys (163.42 ± 7.21 kg, p < 0.05). Peak milk yields occurred on day 57 for North African donkeys (1.212 kg/day) and day 59 for Masri donkeys (0.991 kg/day), with similar persistency indices of 7.19 and 7.21, respectively. North African donkey milk had significantly higher protein (1.45 ± 0.03 g/100 g) and β-lactoglobulin (4.75 ± 0.06 mg/mL) contents, while Masri donkey milk contained more fat (1.16 ± 0.05 g/100 g). Amino acid analysis revealed higher glutamate (0.27 ± 0.12 g/100 g) in North African donkey milk, while Masri donkey milk had more aspartate (0.16 ± 0.04 g/100 g). North African donkey milk had higher palmitic acid (20.1 ± 0.07 g/100 g), while Masri donkey milk had more oleic acid (21.4 ± 0.42 g/100 g). Lactation curve fitting yielded R² values of 93.8% for Masri donkeys and 95.7% for North African donkeys. These findings suggest that both populations are well-suited for milk production, particularly for human consumption or food applications. North African donkeys exhibited superior yields and nutrient profiles suitable for functional food applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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13 pages, 2844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hemodynamic Response to Lipopolysaccharide Infusion and Effect of Meloxicam Administration on Cardiac Function in Donkeys

by Francisco J. Mendoza, Antonio Buzon-Cuevas, Raul Aguilera-Aguilera, Carlos A. Gonzalez-De Cara, Adelaida De Las Heras and Alejandro Perez-Ecija

Animals 2024, 14(24), 3660; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14243660 - 18 Dec 2024

Viewed by 780

Abstract

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) in donkeys is observed to be secondary to colic, diarrhea or pleuropneumonia, among other disorders. Horses with SIRS develop secondary disturbances such as hyperlipemia, laminitis, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, and hemodynamic and cardiac derangements, which impair their prognosis and [...] Read more.

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) in donkeys is observed to be secondary to colic, diarrhea or pleuropneumonia, among other disorders. Horses with SIRS develop secondary disturbances such as hyperlipemia, laminitis, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, and hemodynamic and cardiac derangements, which impair their prognosis and increase the mortality rate. In donkeys, no information is available on the effect of experimentally induced endotoxemia in the cardiovascular system. Acute experimental endotoxemia was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) infusion in six healthy adult non-pregnant jennies. Physical signs, arterial (systolic, diastolic and mean) and central venous pressure were monitored during 360 min. Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) concentrations were measured in blood samples, and echocardiography was performed. LPS infusion caused an increase in cTnI, hypotension and diminution of central venous pressure, cardiac dysfunction, with a decrease in stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO) and cardiac index, and impairment of ultrasonographic ventricular function parameters. Intravenous meloxicam administration prevented the cTnI increase, hypotension, diminution of SV and CO, and changes in ultrasonographic parameters related to ventricular dysfunction. Thus, meloxicam could be proposed as an effective therapeutical option to control the hemodynamic and cardiac derangements observed in donkeys with SIRS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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17 pages, 2801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into the Donkey Hindgut Microbiome Using Metagenome-Assembled Genomes

by Xiyan Kou, Yihong Liu, Fokun Xiang, Xinyue Zhang, Muhammad Zahoor Khan, Boxian Wu, Hua Wang, Yanlin Gong, Changfa Wang, Qingshan Ma and Yan Li

Animals 2024, 14(24), 3625; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14243625 - 16 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 858

Abstract

The gut microbiota plays an important role in the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients, as well as in the immunity, health, and behavior of donkeys. While reference genomes and gut microbial gene catalogs have been helpful in understanding the composition of the [...] Read more.

The gut microbiota plays an important role in the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients, as well as in the immunity, health, and behavior of donkeys. While reference genomes and gut microbial gene catalogs have been helpful in understanding the composition of the donkey, there is still a significant gap in sequencing and understanding the functional aspects of donkey gut microbial genomes. In this study, we analyzed metagenomic sequencing data from 26 donkeys’ gut samples and successfully assembled 844 microbial metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs). Surprisingly, 678 (80.33%) of these MAGs appear to belong to previously unidentified species. Our analysis further revealed a total of 292,980 predicted carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) and 257,893 polysaccharide utilization loci (PULs). Interestingly, these enzymes and loci displayed relatively low similarity matches in public databases. We found that the higher abundances of 36 MAGs in the cecum (such as Prevotella, Desulfovibrio, Alistipes, and Treponema_D) and 9 MAGs in the dorsal colon (such as Limimorpha, Saccharofermentans, and Lactobacillus) were associated with a diverse array of carbohydrate-degrading pathways. Network analysis identified Prevotella and Dysosmobacter as connectors, while Saccharofermentans and Akkermansia were shown as provincial hubs. This suggests their crucial roles in complex carbohydrate degradation and hindgut metabolism in donkeys. These findings underscore the complexity of hindgut metabolism in donkeys and expand our understanding of their gut microbiome. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive catalog of donkey gut microbial genes, revealing novel carbohydrate-degrading enzymes and offering new insights for future research on the donkey gut microbiome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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8 pages, 1101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Albinism and Blood Cell Profile: The Peculiar Case of Asinara Donkeys

by Maria Grazia Cappai, Alice Senes and Giovannantonio Pilo

Animals 2024, 14(18), 2641; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14182641 - 11 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1262

Abstract

The complete blood cell count (CBC) was screened in a group of 15 donkeys, of which 8 were of Asinara breed (oculocutaneous albinism type 1, OCA1) and 7 of Sardo breed (gray coat). All donkeys were kept under same management and dietary conditions [...] Read more.

The complete blood cell count (CBC) was screened in a group of 15 donkeys, of which 8 were of Asinara breed (oculocutaneous albinism type 1, OCA1) and 7 of Sardo breed (gray coat). All donkeys were kept under same management and dietary conditions and underwent periodic health monitoring in the month of June 2024, at the peak of the positive photoperiod, at Mediterranean latitudes. One aliquot of whole blood, drawn from each individual into K₂-EDTA containing tubes, was analyzed for the complete blood cell count through an automatic analyzer, within two hours of sampling. Data were analyzed and compared by one-way ANOVA, where the breed was an independent variable. All animals appeared clinically healthy, though mild eosinophilia was observed in Sardo donkeys. The red blood cell line showed peculiar traits for Asinara donkeys, which displayed significantly higher circulating red blood cell numbers than gray coat Sardo donkeys (RBC, 5.19 vs. 3.80 10¹²/mL ± 0.98 pooled-St. Dev, respectively; p = 0.017). RBCs also exhibited a smaller diameter and higher degree of anisocytosis in Asinara donkeys, along with lower hematocrit value, albeit within physiological ranges. Taken all together, such hematological profile depicts a peculiar trait of the red blood cell line in albino donkeys during the positive photoperiod. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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10 pages, 291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coagulation Profile of the Healthy Miranda’s Donkey

by Grasiene Silva, Felisbina L. Queiroga, Zélia Cruz, Amana Maia and Ana C. Silvestre-Ferreira

Animals 2024, 14(14), 2031; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14142031 - 10 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1011

Abstract

Miranda’s donkey, originating in northern Portugal, is an autochthonous breed that is deeply intertwined with the region’s culture and economy. Knowledge of the physiological characteristics of the breed is important for its preservation, and several studies have been carried out, but none have [...] Read more.

Miranda’s donkey, originating in northern Portugal, is an autochthonous breed that is deeply intertwined with the region’s culture and economy. Knowledge of the physiological characteristics of the breed is important for its preservation, and several studies have been carried out, but none have focused on its coagulation profile. The aim of this study was to establish reference intervals (RIs) for coagulation in healthy Miranda’s donkey and to assess the influence of sex and age. Blood samples from 75 clinically healthy animals were analyzed for seven coagulation parameters: four using IDEXX ProCyte Dx and three using Start^® 4-Diagnostica-Stago. The RI values were calculated following the ASVCP guidelines and with the Reference Advisor V.2.1 software. To analyze the influence of sex and age, SPSS version 29 was used. No significant differences were found between sexes (p > 0.05), but statistically significant differences were found between ages (p < 0.05) for platelet count and plateletcrit (both higher in young animals). The RIs described here can help monitor health and guide the diagnosis and treatment of diseased Miranda’s donkeys, contributing to their preservation. Our study encourages further research on coagulation in donkeys and the use of different methodologies to obtain information for veterinarians working with this species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

9 pages, 594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Complete Blood Count and Biochemistry Reference Intervals for Healthy Adult Donkeys in the United States

by Erin L. Goodrich and Julie L. Webb

Animals 2024, 14(14), 2018; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14142018 - 9 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1384

Abstract

Previous hematologic and serum biochemistry reference interval (RI) values have been established for donkeys in various geographic regions, life-stages, or for specific donkey breeds. The last extensive investigation establishing RIs for adult donkeys in the United States (U.S.) was published over three decades [...] Read more.

Previous hematologic and serum biochemistry reference interval (RI) values have been established for donkeys in various geographic regions, life-stages, or for specific donkey breeds. The last extensive investigation establishing RIs for adult donkeys in the United States (U.S.) was published over three decades ago. We aimed to establish updated robust RIs using a reference population of apparently healthy adult donkeys from across the U.S. Standard sized (n = 102), miniature (n = 17), and mammoth (n = 1) donkeys from four different states were enrolled, with 20% of the study population including donkeys captured directly from the wild in Death Valley National Park, CA. RIs were established in accordance with the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology and Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. The findings will assist practitioners with the interpretation of their complete blood count and biochemistry panel results in U.S. donkeys. This study also highlights a comparison of results for some important analytes in U.S. donkeys compared to U.S. horses and previously established donkey RIs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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13 pages, 1997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Allergic Dermatitis in Pêga Breed Donkeys (Equus asinus) Caused by Culicoides Bites in the Amazon Biome, Pará, Brazil

by José Diomedes Barbosa, Maria Hilma Soares Sodré, Camila Cordeiro Barbosa, Paulo Sérgio Chagas da Costa, Carlos Magno Chaves Oliveira, Tatiane Teles Albernaz Ferreira, José Alcides Sarmento da Silveira, Eryca Ceolin Lamego, Milena Carolina Paz, Rossela Damasceno Caldeira, Paulo César Magalhães Matos, Analiel Serruya, Felipe Masiero Salvarani and Natália da Silva e Silva Silveira

Animals 2024, 14(9), 1330; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14091330 - 29 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1743

Abstract

An allergy to bites from Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) occurs because of a hypersensitivity reaction caused by the inoculation of insect salivary antigens during the bite, resulting in immune-mediated dermatitis. To the best of our knowledge, no previous studies have focused on allergic dermatitis [...] Read more.

An allergy to bites from Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) occurs because of a hypersensitivity reaction caused by the inoculation of insect salivary antigens during the bite, resulting in immune-mediated dermatitis. To the best of our knowledge, no previous studies have focused on allergic dermatitis in donkeys in Brazil. Therefore, this study aimed to describe the epidemiological, clinicopathological, and therapeutic aspects of allergic dermatitis in donkeys and to identify the insects involved in its epidemiology. This study reported the occurrence of dermatitis in 17 animals. The clinical signs were restlessness and severe itching. Skin lesions were found on the head, depigmented areas of the muzzle and cheeks, flanks, pelvic and thoracic limbs, and the scrotal sac. The lesions were characterized by areas of alopecia with crusts accompanied by serosanguineous exudates. Histologically, the lesions were characterized as moderate superficial dermatitis with irregular epidermal acanthosis and pronounced diffuse orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis. In total, 378 Culicoides specimens were collected, with Culicoides ocumarensis Ortiz being the most abundant species. The combined application of copaiba oil and a multivitamin emulsion exhibited potential for topical treatment of allergic dermatitis caused by insect bites in donkeys. Our study revealed an association between allergic dermatitis in donkeys and Culicoides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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16 pages, 1214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

External Hoof Measurements of Untrimmed and Unshod Mules in Northern Thailand

by Thawijit Phannithi, Aree Laikul, Watcharapol Pathomsakulwong, Porrakote Rungsri, Tawanhathai Apichaimongkonkun, Krisana Watchrarat and Worakij Cherdchutham

Animals 2024, 14(8), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14081197 - 16 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1475

Abstract

External hoof characteristics, balance, and conformation have been extensively studied in horses; however, mules remain understudied in these aspects. This study evaluated the size, shape, and symmetry of untrimmed and unshod forelimb hooves, compared the symmetry between forelimb hooves and stratified external forelimb [...] Read more.

External hoof characteristics, balance, and conformation have been extensively studied in horses; however, mules remain understudied in these aspects. This study evaluated the size, shape, and symmetry of untrimmed and unshod forelimb hooves, compared the symmetry between forelimb hooves and stratified external forelimb hoof measurements based on the body condition score of mules raised in the foothill plains of northern Thailand. The forelimb hooves of 38 mules were photographed and 33 parameters, including angular and linear measurements, were analyzed. A multivariate analysis was used to explore the influence of sex, age, and body condition scores (BCS) on angular, linear, and area parameters. Additionally, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test was used to compare these parameters across different BCS groups. Despite the absence of shoeing and trimming, these mules exhibited optimal left–right forelimb hoof symmetry, with no significant (p < 0.05) differences in: outer wall length and inner wall length (OWL–IWL: Left 0.11 ± 0.66 cm; Right −0.12 ± 0.43 cm); sole length and sole width (SL^S–SW: Left 1.65 ± 0.76 cm; Right 1.46 ± 0.89 cm); dorsal hoof wall length and heel length (DHWL–HL: Left 4.00 ± 0.80 cm; Right 3.81 ± 0.72 cm); and frog length and frog width (FL–FW: Left 3.88 ± 1.13 cm; Right 3.82 ± 0.18 cm). However, significant (p < 0.05) differences were observed within each body condition score group for forelimb hoof measurements for DHWL, IWL, heel separation (HS), heel bulb distance (HBD), SW, FW, and FL, while sex and age had no significant differences across the study variables. These findings provide valuable insights into mule welfare and management, contributing to understanding of the interplay between overall health and hoof conformation in the study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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12 pages, 277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serum Biochemistry Parameters of the Endangered Miranda’s Donkey Breed: Reference Intervals and the Influence of Gender and Age

by Grasiene Silva, Ana C. Silvestre-Ferreira, Belen Leiva and Felisbina L. Queiroga

Animals 2024, 14(5), 805; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14050805 - 5 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1567

Abstract

Miranda’s donkey is an endangered, autochthone breed from Northern Portugal. Understanding the physiological and pathological conditions of Miranda’s donkey is crucial for the conservation of the breed. Our study aimed to establish reference intervals (RIs) for blood biochemistry parameters and to evaluate the [...] Read more.

Miranda’s donkey is an endangered, autochthone breed from Northern Portugal. Understanding the physiological and pathological conditions of Miranda’s donkey is crucial for the conservation of the breed. Our study aimed to establish reference intervals (RIs) for blood biochemistry parameters and to evaluate the influence of gender and age on these parameters. Blood samples from 75 clinically healthy animals were analyzed for 21 blood biochemistry parameters using Respons^® 920 and Start^® 4-Diagnostica-Stago. RIs were calculated according to the ASVCP guidelines, utilizing Reference Advisor software V. 2.1 and the statistical program SPSS version 29 to analyze the effects of gender and age. Significant gender-related differences (p < 0.05) were observed in cholesterol, chlorine, creatinine (CREA), glucose (GLU), sodium, and triglycerides (with higher values in females) and in aspartate aminotransferase, creatine phosphokinase (CK), gamma-glutamyl transferase, potassium, magnesium (Mg), and urea (with higher values in males). Age-related differences (p < 0.05) were noted for alkaline phosphatase, CK, fibrinogen, GLU, and phosphorus (higher in young animals) and for globulin, Mg, and total protein (higher in adults). The RIs described here are invaluable for assessing and monitoring the health status of individual animals and herds. Our study highlights the importance of considering gender and age in the interpretation of biochemical parameters, providing critical insights for the conservation and management of this endangered breed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

Review

Jump to: Research

14 pages, 296 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current and Emerging Advanced Techniques for Breeding Donkeys and Mules

by Andrés Gambini, Joanne M. Smith, Rhiannon J. Gurkin and Patricio D. Palacios

Animals 2025, 15(7), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15070990 - 29 Mar 2025

Viewed by 528

Abstract

Donkeys and mules have historically played an important role in agriculture and are now gaining recognition for their contributions to animal conservation, milk production, tourism, and equid-assisted services. However, their distinctive reproductive challenges pose obstacles to breeding management. As a result, the application [...] Read more.

Donkeys and mules have historically played an important role in agriculture and are now gaining recognition for their contributions to animal conservation, milk production, tourism, and equid-assisted services. However, their distinctive reproductive challenges pose obstacles to breeding management. As a result, the application of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) could help address these challenges, enhancing their roles in both traditional and emerging industries. This review examines the current and emerging in vitro techniques for breeding donkeys and mules. Key methodologies such as sperm cryopreservation, innovative sperm preservation technologies, embryo transfer, ovum pick-up (OPU), oocyte maturation, and vitrification are discussed, emphasizing their importance in optimizing ARTs. Advances in in vitro embryo production technologies such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) are reviewed, with particular attention to its success in producing the first donkey and mule blastocysts or foals. Despite significant progress in the last decade, standardization of protocols for gamete conservation and embryo transfer are still required in long-ear equids. Advancing these technologies in combination with established in vitro embryo production could significantly improve reproductive outcomes and enhance the genetic management of donkey and mule populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

18 pages, 3895 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reproductive Disorders in Donkeys: Current Evidence and Update

by Zixuan Wang, Shenming Zeng, Yantao Wang, Tao Wang, Honglei Qu, Yiping Zhu and Jing Li

Animals 2024, 14(17), 2494; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14172494 - 28 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

Reproductive disorders in donkeys present a significant challenge to their health and welfare, impacting their roles in agriculture, conservation, and companionship. With the development of large-scale donkey farming in recent years, reproductive disorders have become a limiting factor for the expansion of the [...] Read more.

Reproductive disorders in donkeys present a significant challenge to their health and welfare, impacting their roles in agriculture, conservation, and companionship. With the development of large-scale donkey farming in recent years, reproductive disorders have become a limiting factor for the expansion of the donkey population. In general, donkeys suffer from a similar array of diseases like horses, but little is known about the specificities of donkey reproductive disorders. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the pathogenesis, distribution, presentation, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of a diverse array of reproductive disorders affecting donkeys. There are similar infectious and non-infectious causes for infertility and pregnancy loss in jennies compared with mares, but a difference in disease susceptibility does exist, which may be attributed to genetic influence, pathogen specificity, the environment, and reproductive management practices. Diagnostic and treatment plans need to be tailored towards the particularities of donkey reproductive disorders to increase donkey populations and to enhance the standard of care for this species. Enhancing reproductive health in donkeys not only ensures their sustainable use but also promotes their welfare and longevity in diverse human–animal interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Donkeys and Mules)

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