Plants

18 pages, 926 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cultivar-Specific Differences in C6 and C7 Sugar Metabolism During Avocado Ripening: Comparative Insights from Bacon, Fuerte, and Hass

by María Gemma Beiro-Valenzuela, Romina P. Monasterio, Irene Serrano-García, Elena Hurtado-Fernández, Carmen María Sánchez-Arévalo, Jorge Fernando Fernández-Sánchez, Romina Pedreschi, Lucía Olmo-García and Alegría Carrasco-Pancorbo

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2856; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182856 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Avocado is a unique fruit in which of seven-carbon (C7) sugars (notably D-mannoheptulose and perseitol) dominate the carbohydrate profile at harvest. Despite growing interest in sugar-mediated ripening processes, limited comparative data exist across cultivars. This work characterises the dynamic changes in non-structural [...] Read more.

Avocado is a unique fruit in which of seven-carbon (C7) sugars (notably D-mannoheptulose and perseitol) dominate the carbohydrate profile at harvest. Despite growing interest in sugar-mediated ripening processes, limited comparative data exist across cultivars. This work characterises the dynamic changes in non-structural carbohydrates in the mesotecarp of three commercially relevant avocado varieties—Bacon, Fuerte, and Hass—across four defined ripening stages, from unripe to overripe, with five biological replicates per stage. Using a validated hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HILIC–MS) method, we quantified five key sugars and assessed their evolution through ripening. Concentrations varied among the studied samples within the following ranges: D-mannoheptulose, 0.4–49 mg/g dry weight (DW); perseitol, 0.5–23 mg/g DW; glucose, 0.8–5.3 mg/g DW; fructose, 0.6–4.5 mg/g DW; and sucrose, 0.5–3.4 mg/g DW. C7 sugar levels consistently declined, while C6 sugars increased—primarily between the intermediate and ready-to-eat stages—with distinct cultivar-specific patterns. Bacon maintained elevated C7 concentrations for a longer period; Fuerte exhibited a rapid transition from C7 to C6 sugars; and Hass displayed a more gradual and balanced shift. Multivariate analysis (partial least squares discriminant analysis, PLS-DA) effectively discriminated between cultivars at each ripening stage, confirming cultivar-specific metabolic signatures. These findings offer new insights into avocado carbohydrate metabolism, emphasising variety-dependent pathways that could inform breeding strategies, optimise postharvest ripening protocols, and support the nutritional characterisation of different avocado cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mass Spectrometry-Based Approaches in Natural Products Research)

27 pages, 11925 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Somatic Embryogenesis and Transcriptomic Analysis of the Early Stage of Callus Redifferentiation in Quercus suber L.

by Xinran Yu, Yaru Hou, Wan Zhang, Han Gong, Baoxuan Liu, Xiaozhou Song, Tiezhu Li, Yun Yang and Jingle Zhu

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2855; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182855 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Quercus suber L. (Q. suber) is an ecologically and industrially valuable species, yet faces challenges in propagation in China. This study optimized somatic embryogenesis (SE) protocols using two-year-old Q. suber leaves, focusing on petioles and leaf veins as the most responsive [...] Read more.

Quercus suber L. (Q. suber) is an ecologically and industrially valuable species, yet faces challenges in propagation in China. This study optimized somatic embryogenesis (SE) protocols using two-year-old Q. suber leaves, focusing on petioles and leaf veins as the most responsive explants, with May as the optimal sampling time. The MSSH medium (a combination of Murashige and Skoog Medium (MS) major elements and Schenk and Hildebrandt Medium (SH) minor elements and vitamins) under darkness maximized transdifferentiation. Additionally, the highest callus induction was achieved with 0.50 mg/L 6-benzyladenine (6-BA) and 1.00 mg/L 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Liquid culture with 1.00 g inoculum and 0.50 mg/L 6-BA + 0.20 mg/L NAA achieved the best proliferation. Redifferentiation peaked at 0.15 mg/L NAA + 0.20 mg/L 6-BA. Transcriptome profiling identified 4534 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between embryogenic callus (E1) and global embryos (E2), with key pathways linked to cell wall remodeling, stress responses, and photosynthesis. Key regulators identified during the early stage of callus redifferentiation include cytokinin oxidase 3 (CKX3), gibberellin-responsive protein (GH3.6), and pectin lyase 5 (PL5), among others. This study provides insights into efficient SE of Q. suber and the genes underlying early callus redifferentiation, laying the groundwork for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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15 pages, 5693 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Dynamics of Ecosystem Carbon Exchange and Their Influencing Factors in Grasslands of Different Degrees of Salinization in Northern China

by Gaoliang Pang, Jingjing Wang, Jianyu Wang, Yicong Chen, Kuanhu Dong and Huajie Diao

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2854; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182854 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Soil pH plays a critical role in shaping the structural composition and functional dynamics of grassland ecosystems. The seasonal dynamics of carbon exchange and the factors influencing them in grassland ecosystems along saline–alkaline gradients remain unclear. In this study, saline–alkaline grasslands in northern [...] Read more.

Soil pH plays a critical role in shaping the structural composition and functional dynamics of grassland ecosystems. The seasonal dynamics of carbon exchange and the factors influencing them in grassland ecosystems along saline–alkaline gradients remain unclear. In this study, saline–alkaline grasslands in northern China were classified into four gradients based on soil pH: mild salinization (pH = 8.36 ± 0.01), moderate salinization (pH = 9.21 ± 0.06), severe salinization (pH = 9.92 ± 0.04), and extreme salinization (pH = 10.49 ± 0.01). Ecosystem carbon exchange (net ecosystem carbon exchange (NEE), ecosystem respiration (ER), and gross ecosystem productivity (GEP)), as well as related biotic and abiotic factors, were investigated in the years 2023 and 2024. Results indicated that extreme salinization significantly reduced NEE, ER, and GEP, whereas no significant differences were observed in these carbon flux components between moderate and severe salinization levels. In 2024, NEE, ER, and GEP exhibited seasonal dynamics; compared to the early (May) and late (September) periods, greater differences were observed during the middle (June–August) period, particularly across varying salinization gradients. Significant negative correlations were observed between soil temperature, root-to-shoot ratio (R/S) and NEE, ER, and GEP, while above-ground and below-ground biomass were significantly positively correlated with NEE, ER, and GEP. Soil moisture exhibited a significant quadratic relationship with both ER and GEP. Importantly, results showed that the R/S explained the greatest variation in carbon fluxes. In summary, as salinization increased, carbon exchange capacity declined significantly, particularly under conditions of extreme salinization, where the R/S emerged as the primary regulatory factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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12 pages, 760 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agrivoltaic Impact on Some Lettuce Quality Attributes and Photovoltaic Power Generation

by Yasin Gunhan and Onur Taskin

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2853; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182853 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Agrivoltaics represent an innovative approach that enables the simultaneous production of both agriculture and energy on limited lands. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of using pruning residues as a sustainable construction material for Agrivoltaic structures and to investigate [...] Read more.

Agrivoltaics represent an innovative approach that enables the simultaneous production of both agriculture and energy on limited lands. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of using pruning residues as a sustainable construction material for Agrivoltaic structures and to investigate the different irrigation conditions (control group (open field) with 100% irrigation (I), 60% I, 80% I, 100% I, and 120% I under the Agrivoltaic) on some lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) quality parameters and PV (photovoltaic) power generation. As a result of the study, the Agrivoltaic system resulted in a 2.92% power loss compared to a conventional PV panel. The average light intensity under the PV panels was recorded as 6500 lux, while it was 47,700 lux in the control group. Therefore, the mean SPAD values of lettuce plants were found at 24.94 SPAD under the Agrivoltaic system, in contrast to 32.49 SPAD measured in the control group. Among the conditions tested, the 100% irrigation (I) condition under the Agrivoltaic system was found to be the most favorable method for lettuce quality in terms of the a* color value, head weight, marketable head weight, head height, head diameter, root length, root width, and root collar diameter. In conclusion, Agrivoltaic systems demonstrate significant potential in the agricultural and energy sectors, contributing to environmental and economic sustainability. Full article

17 pages, 12603 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geographical-Scale Evidence Reveals Plant Nutrient as an Effective Indicator for Coastal Carbon Emissions

by Jing Xiong, Xuexin Shao, Haidong Xu and Ming Wu

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2852; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182852 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Plant traits could help in designing feasible strategies to mitigate global change in inland wetlands, but the correlations between plant traits and carbon emissions in coastal wetlands remain unclear. Here, we investigated the plant traits (including nutrient, structural, and biomass traits) and environmental [...] Read more.

Plant traits could help in designing feasible strategies to mitigate global change in inland wetlands, but the correlations between plant traits and carbon emissions in coastal wetlands remain unclear. Here, we investigated the plant traits (including nutrient, structural, and biomass traits) and environmental conditions (including climate and soil properties) and determined the soil carbon emissions (methane (CH₄), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and their temperature sensitivities (Q₁₀ value)) from the soils of 90 coastal herbaceous wetlands differing in land use types along China’s coastline. We further tested how environmental conditions affected plant traits and how these traits then altered carbon emissions. We found that plant traits had a greater effect on CH₄ and CO₂ emissions than on their Q₁₀ values, with nutrient traits being the key drivers in coastal herbaceous wetlands in China. In general, coastal herbaceous wetlands with larger leaf C and N contents combined with a lower leaf N:P ratio tended to have higher CH₄ emission; those with larger leaf C and P contents combined with a lower leaf N:P ratio tended to have higher CO₂ emission; and those with higher leaf N content and N:P ratio combined with a lower leaf C:P ratio tended to have higher Q₁₀ values of both CH₄ and CO₂. Notably, the predictive power of plant traits in coastal herbaceous wetlands varied significantly across heterogeneous environments influenced by climate and land use. Our results highlight the critical role of plant nutrient traits in driving soil carbon emissions and provide practical insights into understanding coastal carbon dynamics under pressures from climate and land use changes (e.g., coastal reclamation and plant invasion). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

23 pages, 4278 KB

Open AccessArticle

Overexpression of the Wild Soybean Expansin Gene GsEXPB1 Enhances Salt Stress Tolerance in Transgenic Soybeans

by Linlin Wang, Yanlin Sun, Wenxu Liu, Xiaolei Shi, Jing Ma, Fumeng He, Fenglan Li and Xu Feng

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2851; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182851 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

As the ancestor and close relative of soybeans, wild soybeans exhibit strong salt tolerance and are ideal materials for discovering salt-tolerant genes. Expansins are a type of cell wall-loosening protein that plays an active role in regulating plant salt tolerance. We previously obtained [...] Read more.

As the ancestor and close relative of soybeans, wild soybeans exhibit strong salt tolerance and are ideal materials for discovering salt-tolerant genes. Expansins are a type of cell wall-loosening protein that plays an active role in regulating plant salt tolerance. We previously obtained the wild soybean expansin gene GsEXPB1, which is specifically transcribed in roots and actively responds to salt stress. Overexpression of this gene significantly promotes the growth of soybean hairy roots under salt stress. To further elucidate the function of the gene in regulating plant tolerance to salt stress, this study obtained soybean hairy roots that overexpress the GsEXPB1 gene and silence its homologous gene GmEXPB4 through RNAi. Under salt stress, the overexpression of the GsEXPB1 gene significantly promoted the growth of soybean hairy roots, while the hairy roots that were silenced for the GmEXPB4 gene exhibited an opposite phenotype. Physiological assay results indicate that GsEXPB1 enhances the tolerance of soybean hairy roots to salt stress by regulating the antioxidant system and Na⁺/K⁺ content. In soybean lines overexpressing GsEXPB1, the germination rate of seeds and root growth indicators under salt stress were significantly improved compared to those of wild-type plants. Meanwhile, GsEXPB1 enhances the tolerance of transgenic lines to salt stress by actively regulating the antioxidant system, osmotic adjustment system, chlorophyll content, cell wall components, and Na⁺/K⁺ levels, significantly promoting growth and increasing the number of flowers and grain weight. This study reveals the physiological mechanism by which GsEXPB1 enhances soybean salt tolerance, providing a theoretical basis and relevant references for the application of this gene in the breeding of new soybean salt-tolerant varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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17 pages, 491 KB

Open AccessArticle

Duckweed’s Effects on Rice Yield and Quality Varied with Fertilizer Applications

by Yipeng Zhao, Guizhi Shi, Jingsheng Luo, Xinyong Zhao, Shaowu Hu, Tingting Hu, Lianxin Yang and Yunxia Wang

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2850; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182850 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

The incidence of duckweed (Lemna minor L.) outbreaks in paddy fields has increased in recent years, but how it impacts rice production is still under debate. This study assessed duckweed’s effects on rice yield and quality under different fertilizer regimes: organic fertilizer [...] Read more.

The incidence of duckweed (Lemna minor L.) outbreaks in paddy fields has increased in recent years, but how it impacts rice production is still under debate. This study assessed duckweed’s effects on rice yield and quality under different fertilizer regimes: organic fertilizer (OF), chemical fertilizer (CF), a mix (one-third OF and two-thirds CF based on nitrogen content, COF), and no fertilizer (NF) as a control. For each fertilizer regime, two duckweed treatments were applied: duckweed coverage (Duckweed) and no duckweed coverage (Control). A light wet–dry alternate irrigation method was used in the experimental field. Averaged across all fertilizer treatments, duckweed coverage in paddy fields increased grain yield by 8.3%, mainly due to increased panicle density. Duckweed coverage increased chalky grain percentage by 17.0% under NF, but decreased it by 33.7% under CF, with nonsignificant changes under COF and OF conditions. Similar fertilizer-by-duckweed interactions were also found for chalkiness degree, white degree, breakdown and setback values of the starch rapid visco analyzer (RVA) profile, palatability index, and protein and amino acid concentrations. Duckweed coverage decreased protein and amino acid concentrations but improved the taste of cooked rice under NF, while the opposite trend was observed under CF. Duckweed coverage significantly decreased copper and zinc concentrations in milled rice, which may aggravate the “hidden hunger” risk for rice consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 10165 KB

Open AccessArticle

The tae-miR164-TaNAC6A Module from Winter Wheat Could Enhance Cold Tolerance in Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana

by Ziyao Dai, Xiaoyan Yang, Wenwang Shan, Yiou Hao, Da Zhang, Kankan Peng and Qinghua Xu

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2849; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182849 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Cold stress impedes the growth and development of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and other crops, ultimately reducing both yields and quality. Research indicates that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a crucial role in regulating plant stress responses and resistance. In a previous study, [...] Read more.

Cold stress impedes the growth and development of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and other crops, ultimately reducing both yields and quality. Research indicates that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a crucial role in regulating plant stress responses and resistance. In a previous study, we observed that the expression of tae-miR164 was inversely correlated with the expression of TaNAC6A in Dongnongdongmai 1 (Dn1), a winter wheat variety with high cold resistance, under cold-stress conditions. However, the molecular mechanism governing the cold responsiveness of the tae-miR164-TaNAC6A module was not fully understood. We found that tae-miR164 and TaNAC6A were both induced to express in opposite trends, and TaNAC6A was located in the nucleus. We also discovered that the expression of tae-miR164 and its target gene, TaNAC6A, was responsive to short-term freezing stress in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. Compared to wild-type (WT) Arabidopsis plants, OE-tae-miR164 plants showed decreased cold tolerance, whereas those overexpressing TaNAC6A demonstrated increased tolerance. On average, the OE-TaNAC6A and STTM-tea-miR164 plants exhibited fewer morphological abnormalities in response to cold stress, higher antioxidant enzyme activities and gene expression levels, lower levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA), and higher expressions of AtDREB1, AtDREB2, and AtABI5 in the cold-signaling pathway. Thus, the biological functions of tae-miR164 and TaNAC6A were initially confirmed through heterologous expression strategies, and we have made the first attempt to elucidate its associated tae-miR164-TaNAC6A module of cold resistance. The findings of this research will support further investigations into the regulation of plant stress resistance by ncRNAs and will inform molecular module breeding strategies aimed at enhancing the cold tolerance of crop plants. Molecular module design breeding, as a significant breakthrough in modern biotechnology, is transforming traditional breeding models. Conventional hybrid breeding relies on empirical screening, which is time-consuming and subject to randomness. In contrast, molecular module breeding directly targets key genes and achieves precise regulation through technologies such as gene editing and synthetic biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Resistance to Abiotic Stress)

16 pages, 10027 KB

Open AccessArticle

Antiarrhythmic Effects of Supercritical Extract of Acmella oleracea in Rats: Electrophysiological Evidence and Cardioprotective Potential

by Ana Paula de Souza e Silva, Flávia Cristina Seabra Pires, Maria Caroline Rodrigues Ferreira, Letícia Maria Martins Siqueira, Eduardo Gama Ortiz de Menezes, Maria Eduarda Ferraz de Carvalho, Luis Adriano Santos do Nascimento, Alberdan Silva Santos, Akira Otake Hamoy, Moisés Hamoy and Raul Nunes de Carvalho, Jr.

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2848; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182848 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide, with cardiac arrhythmias being one of the main factors contributing to morbidity. Currently, several established antiarrhythmic medications with proven efficacy are available. However, frequent use of these medications causes adverse effects with medium- [...] Read more.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide, with cardiac arrhythmias being one of the main factors contributing to morbidity. Currently, several established antiarrhythmic medications with proven efficacy are available. However, frequent use of these medications causes adverse effects with medium- and long-term use. This necessitates the development of new medications, preferably of natural origin and with ethnopharmacological relevance. In this sense, Acmella oleracea presents itself as an alternative for the treatment of arrhythmia, considering studies suggesting its cardioprotective effect. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the electrophysiological and antiarrhythmic effects of a supercritical extract of Acmella oleracea (SEAO) in rats. The extract was obtained by supercritical CO₂ extraction at 70 °C and 320 bar, with an extract yield of 9.72 ± 0.26% (db) and a spilanthol yield of 25.91%. The extract was administered intraperitoneally at doses of 10, 15, and 20 mg/kg in two experimental models: (1) assessment of cardiac electrophysiology and (2) epinephrine-induced arrhythmia. Electrocardiogram (ECG) parameters were measured and compared with controls treated with epinephrine and lidocaine. The SEAO group maintained sinus rhythm and preserved cardiac intervals, with a significant reduction in heart rate and R-R interval compared to the epinephrine group. These findings demonstrate that SEAO exerts dose-dependent antiarrhythmic effects comparable to those of lidocaine. The results corroborate the potential use of SEAO as a natural alternative for arrhythmia management, encouraging further pharmacological and clinical studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemical Profiles, Health-Promoting Potential, and Botanical Mechanisms of Plant-Derived Components for Use in Food and Herbal Applications)

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26 pages, 1306 KB

Open AccessReview

Current Assessment and Future Perspectives on Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals

by Aniruddha Acharya, Nacer Bellaloui, Andrej Pilipovic, Enrique Perez, Miller Maddox-Mandolini and Hania De La Fuente

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2847; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182847 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Heavy metals such as zinc, manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, and molybdenum are required in minute quantities to maintain optimal biological functions. However, most other heavy metals are not required for living cells; thus, their accumulation within cells and tissues poses a serious [...] Read more.

Heavy metals such as zinc, manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, and molybdenum are required in minute quantities to maintain optimal biological functions. However, most other heavy metals are not required for living cells; thus, their accumulation within cells and tissues poses a serious threat to human health and the environment. Phytoremediation can offer a safe, inexpensive, and ecologically sustainable technique to clean habitats contaminated with heavy metals. Several herbaceous and woody plants have been identified and utilized as potential candidates for phytoremediation, and the technique has transformed from being in the formative stage, where it was confined to laboratories and greenhouses, to becoming a widely applied technology involving field trials across the globe. However, recently, several field studies have shown promising results that can propel the large-scale implementation of this technology at industrial sites and in urban agriculture. The commercialization of this technique is possible if an interdisciplinary approach is employed to increase its efficiency. Identification of the genetic mechanisms and the cell signaling pathways involved in phytoremediation may support biotechnological intervention through OMICS and CRISPR approaches, resulting in an improvement in the efficiency of the process. This review presents a comprehensive overview of phytoremediation with a focus on the current assessment and future perspectives of the technique. It illustrates the concept of phytoremediation, the ecological and commercial benefits, and the types of phytoremediation. The candidate plants and factors that influence phytoremediation are discussed. The physiological and molecular mechanisms, along with perspectives on the future of the technique, are also illustrated. This review presents clear and updated information on this rapidly evolving technology, thus providing the public and private sectors with essential knowledge on phytoremediation mechanisms. This may assist in policy development for the management of heavy metals while accelerating the development of transgenic plants or other tools that might be more efficient in phytoremediation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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18 pages, 2541 KB

Open AccessArticle

OsLAC12, a Laccase-Encoding Gene, Contributes to Rice Heat Tolerance Through Regulation of Antioxidant Defense and Secondary Metabolism

by Shuangcheng Ding, Zihui Gao, Yuhang Chen, Jiaxin Liu, Yuxin Xue, Yulu Teng, Simin Qin, Xiaohai Tian and Hongwei Wang

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2846; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182846 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Heat stress (HT) exerts significant negative impacts on plant growth, development, and productivity. In this study, we identified OsLAC12, a heat-induced laccase-encoding gene, as a key regulator of heat tolerance in rice. Functional validation confirmed that OsLAC12 encodes an active laccase, with [...] Read more.

Heat stress (HT) exerts significant negative impacts on plant growth, development, and productivity. In this study, we identified OsLAC12, a heat-induced laccase-encoding gene, as a key regulator of heat tolerance in rice. Functional validation confirmed that OsLAC12 encodes an active laccase, with supporting evidence showing that roots of OsLAC12 overexpression lines exhibited ~1.5-fold higher laccase activity and nearly three times the lignin content compared to the wild type (WT). Under HT, oslac12 mutants showed significantly lower seedling survival rates (~13–22%) than WT (~43%), whereas OE lines displayed higher survival rates (~68–74%). At the heading stage, OsLAC12 overexpression lines activated the antioxidant enzyme system in spikelets, regulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in anthers, and mitigated HT-induced damage to pollen viability. In contrast, oslac12 mutants showed an average 10.8% reduction in pollen viability compared to WT, accompanied by significantly lower seed-setting rates. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that the laccase OsLAC12 positively regulates rice resistance to HT stress, providing critical insights for improving plant thermotolerance through genetic improvement of cell wall-associated pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Physiology of Abiotic Stress in Plants)

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26 pages, 7427 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphoproteomic Analysis Reveals Impairment of Rice Germination by Chloramphenicol

by Rui Li, Narumon Phaonakrop, Sittiruk Roytrakul, Karan Lohmaneeratana and Arinthip Thamchaipenet

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2845; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182845 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Seed germination is a critical phase in rice production and is highly sensitive to environmental and chemical stresses. Chloramphenicol (CAM), a known phytotoxic antibiotic, has been reported to suppress rice seedling establishment, yet its underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, [...] Read more.

Seed germination is a critical phase in rice production and is highly sensitive to environmental and chemical stresses. Chloramphenicol (CAM), a known phytotoxic antibiotic, has been reported to suppress rice seedling establishment, yet its underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of varying CAM concentrations on rice germination and early seedling establishment. While CAM significantly retarded germination speed and seedling growth, the final germination rates remained largely unaffected, even at high concentrations. To uncover the molecular basis of CAM phytotoxicity, we conducted time-resolved phosphoproteomic profiling during both the germination and early seedling stages. Our analyses revealed dynamic, stage-specific phosphorylation changes: moderate alterations affecting metabolic and cytokinesis-related processes during germination, and extensive disruptions in metabolic pathways, stress response mechanisms, DNA replication, and hormone signaling during early seedling establishment. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that CAM disrupts rice development by remodeling phosphorylation networks and modulating key physiological and signaling pathways. This study provides novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying antibiotic-induced growth inhibition and advances our understanding of plant stress responses during early development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue ‘Omics’ and ‘Multi-Omics’ Insights into Plant Responses to Abiotic Stresses)

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25 pages, 1542 KB

Open AccessReview

Cadmium Contamination in Asian Rice (Oryza sativa L.): Mechanistic Insights from Soil Sources to Grain Accumulation and Mitigation Strategies

by Jing Wang, Bian Wu, Lei Zhou, Kai Liu, Aiqing You and Wenjun Zha

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2844; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182844 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) pollution in rice crops is a global environmental challenge, endangering food security and sustainable agricultural development. Cd ions are highly dynamic and toxic and can easily accumulate in rice grains, resulting in adverse consequences on human health and ecological safety. With [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd) pollution in rice crops is a global environmental challenge, endangering food security and sustainable agricultural development. Cd ions are highly dynamic and toxic and can easily accumulate in rice grains, resulting in adverse consequences on human health and ecological safety. With accelerated industrialization and abundant agricultural activities, Cd enters paddy soils through multiple pathways, leading to increasingly complex processes of migration and transformation of Cd in the soil–rice ecosystem. Although recent studies have substantially advanced our comprehension of the pathways promoting the uptake, transport, and accumulation of Cd in rice, this information is scattered and lacks systematic integration, leading to an incomplete understanding of the entire contamination process. This review adopts a rigorous perspective spanning from soil input to grain accumulation and comprehensively summarizes the absorption pathways, translocation mechanisms, and remediation strategies for Cd pollution in rice. The effects of phytotoxicity induced by Cd on rice growth are thoroughly analyzed, and recent advances in various mitigation strategies are highlighted, including agronomic management, cultivar improvement, bioremediation, and signal regulation. By integrating the findings of latest research, this review (i) proposes a mechanistic network of Cd contamination occurrence and control in rice; (ii) elucidates critical regulatory nodes; and (iii) offers a theoretical framework for growing rice cultivars with a low Cd content, remediating Cd-contaminated farmlands, and ensuring food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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21 pages, 2618 KB

Open AccessArticle

Late Water Deficits Improve Intrinsic Water Use Efficiency, Fruit Maturity, and Acceptability in Yellow-Fleshed Kiwifruit cv. Soreli

by Arturo Calderón-Orellana, Mauricio Calderón-Orellana, Catalina Atenas, Carolina Contreras, Felipe Aburto, Tamara Alvear and Silvia Antileo-Mellado

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2843; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182843 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

Water scarcity poses a significant threat to kiwifruit production, especially in Mediterranean climates. This study investigated the impact of late-season regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) on water use efficiency and fruit quality of yellow-fleshed kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis cv. Soreli) over two seasons in [...] Read more.

Water scarcity poses a significant threat to kiwifruit production, especially in Mediterranean climates. This study investigated the impact of late-season regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) on water use efficiency and fruit quality of yellow-fleshed kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis cv. Soreli) over two seasons in central Chile. Four irrigation treatments were applied during fruit ripening: full irrigation (Control), moderate deficits for three or five weeks (D50S and D50L), and complete irrigation suspension for three weeks (D100). While D100 had minimal impact on stomatal conductance, it significantly reduced stem and leaf water potentials, indicating severe water stress. D100 treatment also showed the highest intrinsic water use efficiency (via δ13C enrichment) and improved water productivity by up to 20%. Fruits from D100 and D50S had higher soluble solids (up to 2.0 °Brix) without compromising firmness or yield. Sensory evaluations indicated greater consumer acceptance in water-stressed treatments, especially D100, due to enhanced color and flavor. Principal component analysis confirmed that moderate-to-severe-water stress correlated with favorable sensory profiles. These findings suggest that short-term, late-season water deficits can enhance fruit quality and water use efficiency without reducing yield, offering a sustainable strategy for kiwifruit production under increasing water limitations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Challenges in Response to Salt and Water Stress)

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21 pages, 6745 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Role of AP2/EREBP Genes with Decreasing Expression During Leaf Development in 84K Poplar

by Sanjiao Wang, Nan Liu, Jingna Si, Sihan Zhang and Xiaomin Liu

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2842; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182842 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

The 84K poplar (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa) is a fast-growing hybrid poplar that was introduced from South Korea by the Chinese Academy of Forestry in 1984. To gain deeper insight into the regulatory mechanisms of leaf development in 84K poplar, [...] Read more.

The 84K poplar (Populus alba × Populus glandulosa) is a fast-growing hybrid poplar that was introduced from South Korea by the Chinese Academy of Forestry in 1984. To gain deeper insight into the regulatory mechanisms of leaf development in 84K poplar, we performed bulk RNA sequencing and found that numerous members of the AP2/EREBP family exhibited expression changes, suggesting their crucial roles in leaf development. The AP2/EREBP transcription factor family is one of the largest and most conserved gene families in plants. These genes play a crucial role in plant growth, development, and stress responses. In this study, we identified and analyzed 400 AP2/EREBP genes through transcriptome analysis, excluding genes with missing values (NAs) or FPKM < 1, and selected 76 genes based on their expression patterns at different stages of leaf development. The 76 genes were classified into three subfamilies based on phylogenetic analysis and structural domain characteristics: the RAV subfamily, the ERF subfamily, and the AP2 subfamily. Each subfamily shares similar gene structures and motifs while also exhibiting distinct differences. Segmental duplication events may have contributed to the evolution of this gene family. Most of the promoter cis-acting elements are related to light responses, with fewer elements associated with palisade tissues and hormones. Eight genes, selected for their gradually decreasing expression during leaf development, were validated through RT-PCR experiments. Among them, five genes—Pop_G10G022861, Pop_A01G003858, Pop_A01G081120, Pop_A01G074798, and Pop_A07G010900—exhibited a decreasing trend in expression across the three stages of leaf development. Subcellular localization analysis indicated that Pop_A01G003858 and Pop_G11G077730, two randomly selected genes from the eight AP2/EREBP members validated by RT-PCR, are localized in the nucleus. In conclusion, these findings provide valuable insights into the evolutionary relationships of the 73 AP2/EREBP family members in 84K poplar leaves and lay a foundation for future studies on leaf development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Biology of Chloroplast: Structure, Function and Development—2nd Edition)

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26 pages, 1078 KB

Open AccessReview

Recent Trends in Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Ensemble Learning, and Explainable Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Evaluating Crop Yields Under Abnormal Climate Conditions

by Ji Won Choi, Mohamad Soleh Hidayat, Soo Been Cho, Woon-Ha Hwang, Hoonsoo Lee, Byoung-Kwan Cho, Moon S. Kim, Insuck Baek and Geonwoo Kim

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2841; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182841 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Crop yield prediction (CYP) has become increasingly critical in addressing the adverse effects of abnormal climate and enhancing agricultural productivity. This review investigates the application of advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques including Machine Learning (ML), Deep Learning (DL), Ensemble Learning, and Explainable AI [...] Read more.

Crop yield prediction (CYP) has become increasingly critical in addressing the adverse effects of abnormal climate and enhancing agricultural productivity. This review investigates the application of advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques including Machine Learning (ML), Deep Learning (DL), Ensemble Learning, and Explainable AI (XAI) to CYP. It also explores the use of remote sensing and imaging technologies, identifies key environmental factors, and analyzes the primary causes of yield reduction. A wide diversity of input features was observed across studies, largely influenced by data availability and specific research goals. Stepwise feature selection was found to be more effective than increasing feature volume in improving model accuracy. Frequently used algorithms include Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machines (SVM) for ML, Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) for DL, as well as stacking-based ensemble methods. Although XAI remains in the early stages of adoption, it shows strong potential for interpreting complex, multi-dimensional CYP models. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and multispectral imaging (MSI), often collected via drones, were the most commonly used sensing techniques. Major factors contributing to yield reduction included atmospheric and soil-related conditions under abnormal climate, as well as pest outbreaks, declining soil fertility, and economic constraints. Providing a comprehensive overview of AI-driven CYP frameworks, this review offers insights that support the advancement of precision agriculture and the development of data-informed agricultural policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Modeling)

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22 pages, 4181 KB

Open AccessArticle

Lemna gibba Clones Show Differences in Phenotypic Responses to the Light Environment

by Pham Thi Hong Xuan, Raja Amri, Nguyen Phuong Bach, Muhammad Irfan, Manuela Bog, Klaus J. Appenroth, K. Sowjanya Sree, Marcel A. K. Jansen, Sándor Szabó, Ilona Mészáros and Viktor Oláh

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2840; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182840 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Duckweeds are aquatic plants with a worldwide distribution that can thrive under very contrasting ambient conditions due to their diversity and high phenotypic plasticity. In this study, we analyzed and compared the responses of four clones (i.e., distinct accessions) of Lemna gibba to [...] Read more.

Duckweeds are aquatic plants with a worldwide distribution that can thrive under very contrasting ambient conditions due to their diversity and high phenotypic plasticity. In this study, we analyzed and compared the responses of four clones (i.e., distinct accessions) of Lemna gibba to two different light intensities. The clones represented different geographical origins and, in addition to two diploid cytotypes, included one tetraploid mutant and a triploid interspecific hybrid. We hypothesized that clonal origin had an effect on light acclimation. We studied growth, morphological (frond size and shape, mass-to-area ratio), and photosynthetic (pigment composition, chlorophyll fluorescence induction) traits of these clones to test whether light acclimation was a conserved process or whether clone-specific strategies could be found. We also analyzed frond-level photosynthetic adjustment during ontogenesis to track how light acclimation evolved in developing fronds. Our results confirmed that even clones of the same duckweed species and a hybrid of closely related species followed partially different strategies in acclimation to ambient conditions. This acclimation involved various morphological, physiological, and biochemical adjustments but happened in a very short time window at the early life stage when young, still-developing fronds could flexibly achieve an optimized phenotype. In addition to explaining the worldwide success of duckweeds in colonizing very contrasting habitats, our results also highlight the importance of approaching duckweed responses at the frond level, where the actual acclimation takes place. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Duckweed: Research Meets Applications—2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 4004 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influencing Factors and Adaptation Strategies of Stoichiometric Characteristics of Main Shrubs and Herbs in Karst Area at Microhabitat Scale

by Peng Wu, Hua Zhou, Wenjun Zhao, Guangneng Yang, Yingchun Cui, Yiju Hou, Chengjiang Tan, Ting Zhou, Run Liu and Fangjun Ding

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2839; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182839 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

In order to reveal the adaptation strategies of karst forest plants to “high-calcium (Ca)–low-phosphorus (P) heterogeneous” habitats, the dominant shrubs and herbs in the Maolan karst area were taken as the research objects. The carbon (C), nitrogen (N), P, potassium (K), Ca, and [...] Read more.

In order to reveal the adaptation strategies of karst forest plants to “high-calcium (Ca)–low-phosphorus (P) heterogeneous” habitats, the dominant shrubs and herbs in the Maolan karst area were taken as the research objects. The carbon (C), nitrogen (N), P, potassium (K), Ca, and magnesium (Mg) contents of plant components and their stoichiometric ratios in different microhabitats were systematically measured, and the environmental driving factors were analyzed by redundancy analysis (RDA) and variance partitioning analysis (VPA). The results showed that there were no significant differences in the plant nutrient contents and stoichiometric ratios in different microhabitats, but there were significant differences with respect to the components. The contents of N, P, K, and Mg in shrub leaves were significantly higher than those in branches and roots, while the contents of C/N, C/P, and C/K in branches and roots were significantly higher than those in leaves. The K content of herb leaves was significantly higher than that of roots. This reflects the functional differentiation of plant components and the different trade-off strategies for resource acquisition and storage. The stoichiometric characteristics of shrub leaves are dominated by species characteristics, while herb leaves are controlled by leaf tissue density (LTD), and soil-exchangeable Ca has a significant regulatory effect on the roots of both plant forms. Shrubs directly obtain bedrock slow-release nutrients through deep roots penetrating rock crevices and combine high C/N and C/P to improve nutrient utilization efficiency, forming a “mechanical resistance priority–metabolic cost optimization” adaptation strategy. Herbs respond to environmental fluctuations through functional trait plasticity and achieve rapid growth with high specific leaf area (SLA) and low LTD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant Nutrition Responses and Stress)

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16 pages, 3526 KB

Open AccessArticle

Non-CG DNA Methylation Regulates Root Stem Cell Niche Maintenance, Auxin Signaling, and ROS Homeostasis in Arabidopsis Under Cadmium Stress

by Emanuela Talarico, Eleonora Greco, Fabrizio Araniti, Adriana Chiappetta and Leonardo Bruno

Plants 2025, 14(18), 2838; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14182838 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Non-CG DNA methylation plays a critical role in regulating root development and stress responses in Arabidopsis thaliana under cadmium (Cd²⁺) exposure. We compared wild type (WT) plants with the ddc triple mutant (deficient in DRM1, DRM2, and CMT3) [...] Read more.

Non-CG DNA methylation plays a critical role in regulating root development and stress responses in Arabidopsis thaliana under cadmium (Cd²⁺) exposure. We compared wild type (WT) plants with the ddc triple mutant (deficient in DRM1, DRM2, and CMT3) to assess how epigenetic modifications affect the root apical meristem (RAM) under 100 µM and 150 µM CdCl₂ treatments. Cd²⁺ exposure led to RAM disorganization, reduced cortical cell number, and quiescent center (QC) cell loss in WT roots, while ddc mutants maintained meristem integrity and exhibited QC cell expansion. Auxin signaling, assessed via pDR5::GFP, was disrupted in WT roots at high Cd²⁺ levels but remained stable in ddc mutants. Similarly, WT roots showed elevated reactive oxygen species accumulation under stress, whereas ddc mutants displayed a reduced oxidative response. These results suggest that non-CG DNA methylation suppresses key regulators of stem cell maintenance, hormonal balance, and redox homeostasis during heavy metal stress. Loss of this methylation in the ddc mutant confers enhanced resilience to Cd²⁺ toxicity, highlighting an epigenetic mechanism underlying root stress adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Mechanisms Associated with Plant Tolerance upon Abiotic Stress—2nd Edition)

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