Plants

21 pages, 1814 KB

Open AccessArticle

TreeSeg-Net: An End-to-End Instance Segmentation Network for Leaf-Off Forest Point Clouds Using Global Context and Spatial Proximity

by Xingmei Xu, Ruihang Zhang, Shunfu Xiao, Jiayuan Li, Xinyue Zhang, Liying Cao, Helong Yu, Yuntao Ma, Jian Zhang and Xiyang Zhao

Plants 2026, 15(4), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15040525 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Forest ecosystems play a pivotal role in maintaining the balance of the global carbon cycle and conserving biodiversity. High-density point clouds derived from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) structure from motion (SfM) and multi-view stereo (MVS) technologies offer a cost-effective solution for data acquisition. [...] Read more.

Forest ecosystems play a pivotal role in maintaining the balance of the global carbon cycle and conserving biodiversity. High-density point clouds derived from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) structure from motion (SfM) and multi-view stereo (MVS) technologies offer a cost-effective solution for data acquisition. These technologies have become efficient tools for facilitating precision forest resource management and extracting individual tree structural parameters. However, in complex forest scenarios during the leaf-off season, canopies exhibit unstructured branch network morphologies due to the absence of leaf occlusion, and adjacent crowns are heavily interlaced. Consequently, existing segmentation methods struggle to overcome challenges associated with fuzzy boundaries and instance adhesion. To address these challenges, this study proposes TreeSeg-Net, an end-to-end instance segmentation network designed to precisely separate individual trees directly from raw point clouds. The network incorporates a global context attention module (GCAM) to capture long-range feature dependencies, thereby compensating for the limitations of sparse convolution in perceiving global information. Simultaneously, a spatial proximity weighting module (SPWM) is designed. By introducing geometric center constraints and a distance penalty mechanism, this module effectively mitigates under-segmentation issues caused by the feature similarity of adjacent branches in high-canopy-density environments. Experimental results demonstrate that TreeSeg-Net achieves an average precision (AP) of 97.2% in instance segmentation tasks and a mean intersection over union (mIoU) of 99.7% in semantic segmentation tasks. Compared to mainstream networks, the proposed method exhibits superior segmentation accuracy, providing an efficient and automated technical solution for precise resource inventory in complex forest environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Production: From Precision Technologies to Field Applications)

25 pages, 2821 KB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Silver Nanoparticles Enhance the Performance of Maize Plants Cultivated in Naturally Occurring Saline Soil

by Fernando Gabriel Martínez, Paula Paterlini, Maria Cecilia Rasuk, Carolina Prado, Emilce Viruel, Cintia Mariana Romero and Analía Álvarez

Plants 2026, 15(4), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15040524 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress that limits agricultural productivity worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether biogenic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) can mitigate salt stress in maize while preserving soil biological health under realistic soil conditions. Biogenic AgNPs were [...] Read more.

Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress that limits agricultural productivity worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether biogenic silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) can mitigate salt stress in maize while preserving soil biological health under realistic soil conditions. Biogenic AgNPs were synthesized using biomolecules from the actinobacterium Streptomyces sp. Z38 and characterized, confirming spherical morphology, colloidal stability, and surface functionalization. Maize plants grown under greenhouse conditions were treated with biogenic or chemically synthesized AgNPs, and plant performance, oxidative stress responses, and soil biological properties were evaluated. Under saline conditions (6 mS cm⁻¹), biogenic AgNPs markedly improved plant growth, almost fully restoring leaf dry weight (165.08 ± 23.68 mg) to values comparable with non-saline controls (171.81 ± 15.00 mg), while chemical AgNPs induced only partial recovery. Biogenic AgNPs also enhanced antioxidant defenses, increasing catalase activity by ~15% above non-saline levels and reducing lipid peroxidation from 232.34 ± 31.74 to 102.63 ± 5.75 Eq. MDA g⁻¹. In parallel, chlorophyll a content increased by ~29% relative to non-saline plants, indicating improved photosynthetic performance. Transmission electron microscopy of leaves confirmed AgNPs internalization, with nanoparticles primarily sequestered in vacuoles. Analyses of experimental soils showed that biogenic AgNPs enhanced microbial enzymatic activity and respiration, while chemical AgNPs had inhibitory effects. Ecotoxicological assays further indicated low soil toxicity following biogenic AgNPs plant treatment, as reflected by high lettuce germination rates. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of biogenic AgNPs obtained from actinobacteria as sustainable nanobiotechnological tools to mitigate salt stress in crops while improving soil health. Future field-scale studies will be required to validate their agronomic applicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant–Microorganism Interactions)

23 pages, 3045 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Profiling, Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Farsetia aegyptia and Zilla spinosa: Integrated In Vitro, In Vivo, and In Silico Studies

by Malek Besbes, Assia Hamdi, Kaouther Majouli, Mabrouk Horchani, Abeer Ayed Alshammari, Saoussen Jilani, Salwa Ahmed Lotfi, Ramzi Hadj Lajimi, Hichem Ben Jannet, Walid Ben Selma and Jamil Kraiem

Plants 2026, 15(4), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15040523 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Plants are a rich source of active metabolites that have been used to treat inflammation troubles. The current study aimed to identify the analgesic and anti-inflammatory compounds in Farsetia aegyptia and Zilla spinosa extracts. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using the xylene-induced ear [...] Read more.

Plants are a rich source of active metabolites that have been used to treat inflammation troubles. The current study aimed to identify the analgesic and anti-inflammatory compounds in Farsetia aegyptia and Zilla spinosa extracts. The anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using the xylene-induced ear edema model in mice and the carrageenan-induced paw edema model in Wistar rats. Additionally, both central and peripheral analgesic effects were assessed in mice. The anti-lipoxygenase activity was examined through an in vitro enzyme inhibition assay. The phytochemical composition of the bioactive extracts was characterized using High-Resolution Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (HR-LCMS). The aqueous extracts of both species exhibited the strongest anti-inflammatory activity. The F. aegyptia extract showed inhibition percentages of 51.82% at 6.25 mg/kg and 51.14% at 0.78 mg/kg, while the Z. spinosa extract yielded 65.05% inhibition at 12.5 mg/kg and 56.14% at 1.56 mg/kg in the paw and ear edema models, respectively. These extracts also demonstrated significant analgesic activity and inhibited lipoxygenase, with IC₅₀ values of 0.063 mg/mL for F. aegyptia and 0.072 mg/mL for Z. spinosa. HR-LCMS analysis revealed that the main constituent in Fa was malic acid (18.83%), while retronecine (19.03%) was the primary compound in Z. spinosa. Quercetin 3-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-rhamnosyl-(1->6)-glucoside] was detected in both extracts with important proportions 7.87% in F. aegyptia and 8.29% in Z. spinosa and displayed the best docking score of −9.2 kcal/mol against the 5-lipoxygenase receptor (PDB: 3V99) in molecular docking studies. Overall, these findings indicate that F. aegyptia and Z. spinosa have significant potential as sources of novel anti-inflammatory agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Sustainable Research, Production and Utilization)

17 pages, 1821 KB

Open AccessArticle

LC-MS Profiling and Biological Activity of Unexplored Leucas nubica Benth. (Lamiaceae)

by Dimitrina Zheleva-Dimitrova, Gokhan Zengin, Sakina Yagi, Solafa Suliman and Reneta Gevrenova

Plants 2026, 15(4), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15040522 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

Leucas nubica Benth. (Lamiaceae) is an annual herbaceous plant, native to east and northeast tropical Africa. The whole plant is renowned for the treatment of jaundice. The present study aimed at an in-depth phytochemical profiling and evaluation of in vitro antioxidant and enzyme [...] Read more.

Leucas nubica Benth. (Lamiaceae) is an annual herbaceous plant, native to east and northeast tropical Africa. The whole plant is renowned for the treatment of jaundice. The present study aimed at an in-depth phytochemical profiling and evaluation of in vitro antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory potential of methanol–aqueous extract from L. nubica aerial parts. The liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) experiment revealed more than 70 secondary metabolites, including carboxylic and phenolic acids, phenylethanoid, iridoid, and lignan glycosides, and flavonoids. The L. nubica extract profile was dominated by the phenylethanoid glycoside verbascoside. All annotated compounds are reported for the first time in the species. The extract actively scavenged DPPH and ABTS radicals (38.8 ± 0.1 and 36.8 ± 0.4 mg TE/g) and showed high CUPRAC (71.1 ± 1.1 mg TE/g) and moderate FRAP (44.9 ± 2.6 mg TE/g) reducing power. The L. nubica extract exhibited high inhibition towards acetylcholinesterase (2.23 ± 0.02 mg GALAE/g), butyrylcholinesterase (2.38 ± 0.04 mg GALAE/g), and tyrosinase (60.7 ± 0.6 mg KAE/g). The obtained results highlight L. nubica extract as a rich source of phenylethanoid glycosides and flavonoids with significant bioactivity and shed light into the phytochemical composition and pharmacological potential of the plant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valuable Sources of Bioactive Natural Products from Plants, Third Edition)

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20 pages, 2029 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Role of Durum Wheat Thioredoxin h-Type TdTrxh2 in Biotic Stress Tolerance

by Hanen Kamoun, Sahar Keskes, Hanen Dhouib, Sana Tounsi, Olfa Jrad, Faiçal Brini and Kaouthar Feki

Plants 2026, 15(4), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15040521 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

The thioredoxin h-type (Trxh) proteins play a crucial role as convergence points within plants’ responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Previously, we demonstrated that the protein TdTrxh2 of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) has a chaperone function and it promotes tolerance [...] Read more.

The thioredoxin h-type (Trxh) proteins play a crucial role as convergence points within plants’ responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Previously, we demonstrated that the protein TdTrxh2 of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) has a chaperone function and it promotes tolerance to abiotic stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial effect of TdTrxh2 and its role in the response of durum wheat to Fusarium graminearum attack. First, we demonstrated the involvement of TdTrxh2 in the response of durum wheat to this fungus via the analysis of its expression profile under this fungus attack. In fact, the outcomes showed that the induction of TdTrxh2 expression is spatiotemporal in leaves and roots of durum wheat under F. graminearum infection. Interestingly, this induction was accompanied by H₂O₂ accumulation under short- and long-term stress in roots and leaves, respectively. Besides, the cis elements related to the two phytohormones ET and MeJA, and those implicated in defense and wound stress, were identified in the TdTrxh2 promoter’s sequence. Second, the purified TdTrxh2 protein possessed antimicrobial effects against a diverse range of bacteria and fungi in vitro. Finally, the expression of TdTrxh2 in transgenic Arabidopsis plants enhanced their tolerance to F. graminearum attack through the activation of the two H₂O₂-scavenging enzymes, CAT and POD, and via the induction of a subset of SA- and ABA-related genes. Moreover, the exogenous SA and ABA applications improved the growth of the transgenic lines compared to the non-transformed plants. Taken together, the results highlighted that TdTrxh2 generates tolerance of durum wheat’s response to F. graminearum attack, via the regulation of H₂O₂ homeostasis and the induction of hormone-associated genes. Thus, the TdTrxh2 gene could be considered as an interesting candidate gene to improve wheat tolerance to F. graminearum attack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Bioinformatics in Plant Science)

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16 pages, 1389 KB

Open AccessArticle

Key Genomic Regions of Rice Cultivar GuiHeFeng and Its Derivatives Revealed by Genome-Wide Analysis

by Yu-Zhi Chen, Xin-Yu Hao, Yue-Xiong Zhang, Zeng-Feng Ma, Chi Liu, Xiao-Long Zhou, Min-Yi Wei, Bao-Xiang Qin, Yong Yan and Da-Hui Huang

Plants 2026, 15(3), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030520 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Rice is a widely cultivated staple crop that serves as the primary source of carbohydrates for more than half of the global population. Elite parents with superior agronomic traits play a crucial role in rice breeding systems. In this study, we performed whole-genome [...] Read more.

Rice is a widely cultivated staple crop that serves as the primary source of carbohydrates for more than half of the global population. Elite parents with superior agronomic traits play a crucial role in rice breeding systems. In this study, we performed whole-genome resequencing of the rice cultivar GuiHeFeng and its nine derivative lines, identifying a total of 6,633,507 high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The percentage of GuiHeFeng traceable blocks (GTBs) in the nine derivatives ranged from 48.94% to 63.2%. Based on the SNP analysis, we found 1310 key GuiHeFeng traceable blocks (kGTBs), which were derived from GuiHeFeng and present in all nine derivatives. Moreover, 375 selective sweeps (SSWs) were identified, of which 20 were also located within the kGTBs. These 20 SSWs were regarded as key genomic regions (kGRs) for rice breeding. After the association test, 20 alleles including 17 genes were identified on the kGTBs, and 38 significant genes were found within the key genomic regions. This research identifies the genomic segments and agronomically important genes/QTLs that will serve as essential targets for genomic selection in rice breeding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Plant Breeding: Integrating Genomics Tools and Marker-Assisted Selection)

12 pages, 4080 KB

Open AccessArticle

VviAMT4;1 Is a High-Affinity Ammonium Transporter in Table Grape

by Huilin Xiao, Matthew Shi, Yanwen Tang, Rui Yuan, Zhizhong Song and Meiling Tang

Plants 2026, 15(3), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030519 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Ammonium transporters (AMTs) are a class of membrane-associated proteins that play crucial roles in the uptake and transport of ammonium (NH₄⁺ or NH₃). In this study, an ammonium transporter-encoding gene VviAMT4;1 was isolated and identified from table grape ‘Yanpu [...] Read more.

Ammonium transporters (AMTs) are a class of membrane-associated proteins that play crucial roles in the uptake and transport of ammonium (NH₄⁺ or NH₃). In this study, an ammonium transporter-encoding gene VviAMT4;1 was isolated and identified from table grape ‘Yanpu No.2’. Notably, the expression level of VviAMT4;1 varied significantly across different organs or tissues of ‘Yanpu No.2’, and the highest expression level was detected in the roots of both tissue-cultured seedlings and 5-year-old mature trees. Expression of VviAMT4;1 was significantly up-regulated under NH₄⁺ depletion throughout the whole of tissue-cultured seedlings. Yeast mutant functional complementation indicates that the recombinant strain pYES2-VviAMT4;1/31019b restored growth under different pH conditions. ¹⁵N isotope-labeled uptake kinetics analysis demonstrated that VviAMT4;1 is a typical high-affinity ammonium transporter, with a Kₘ value of 49.58 ± 4.66 μmol·L⁻¹ and a Vₘₐₓ value of 3.29 μmoles·min⁻¹·μg⁻¹ cells. Moreover, VviAMT4;1 can mediate the weak uptake and utilization of methyl amine (MeA⁺) in yeast cells. The VviAMT4;1-mediated NH₄⁺ uptake process may suffer from feedback inhibition by endogenous NH₄⁺ enrichment. This study provides insights into understanding the molecular mechanisms of N transport and utilization in fruit trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insights and Regulation of Plant Growth and Metabolism)

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17 pages, 5656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Attributes and Soil Moisture Availability Drive Ecosystem Multifunctionality of Forests in Eastern Tibetan Plateau, China

by Ming Ni, Peng Luo, Hao Yang, Honglin Li, Yue Cheng and Yu Huang

Plants 2026, 15(3), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030518 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Forests deliver multiple essential ecosystem functions, and most natural forests occur in highly heterogeneous environments and span different developmental stages. Despite this complexity, the relative influences of biotic and environmental drivers on ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF) remain insufficiently understood across temporal and spatial scales. [...] Read more.

Forests deliver multiple essential ecosystem functions, and most natural forests occur in highly heterogeneous environments and span different developmental stages. Despite this complexity, the relative influences of biotic and environmental drivers on ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF) remain insufficiently understood across temporal and spatial scales. Here, we surveyed forests along elevational (1800–3500 m) and successional (early to late) gradients on the eastern Tibetan Plateau, quantify how climate, soil properties, and forest attributes (diversity, stand structure, and functional traits) regulate EMF. EMF was constructed from eight indicators representing nutrient cycling, plant productivity, and water conservation. Further, we assessed variation in biodiversity effects, including selection and complementarity effects. We found that soil moisture, functional diversity, and the coefficient of variation in stand diameter exert significant positive effects on EMF, whereas species richness—the most commonly used diversity metric—shows no significant effect. Mean annual temperature and soil bulk density, by contrast, have significant negative effects. The strengths of both selection and complementarity effects vary along elevational and successional gradients, with complementarity effects becoming markedly stronger at higher elevations. Overall, our findings reveal the mechanisms through which climate, soil properties, and forest attributes jointly regulate EMF, underscoring the pivotal roles of plant functional diversity and structural heterogeneity in sustaining the multifunctionality of subalpine forests. Results provide a robust empirical foundation for improving natural forest EMF and restoration management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

15 pages, 2477 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unveiling the Physiological Basis of Cold Tolerance in Maize: Root Architecture, Photosynthetic Stability, and POD-Mediated Defense Under Delayed Chilling Stress

by Zhen Wang, Qi Jia, Baolin Zhang, Bo Ming, Lanfang Bai, Fugui Wang, Yongqiang Wang, Shengnan Yu, Runhou Zou and Zhigang Wang

Plants 2026, 15(3), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030517 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Delayed chilling stress is a frequent meteorological disaster in the spring maize-growing region of Northern China. Understanding the physiological responses and key characteristics of cold-tolerant maize varieties under such stress is crucial for their selection and utilization. This study compared the physiological and [...] Read more.

Delayed chilling stress is a frequent meteorological disaster in the spring maize-growing region of Northern China. Understanding the physiological responses and key characteristics of cold-tolerant maize varieties under such stress is crucial for their selection and utilization. This study compared the physiological and biochemical responses of a cold-tolerant variety (XY335) and a conventional variety (KH8) to simulated delayed chilling stress induced by early field sowing. Results showed that the emergence percentage and emergence uniformity of the cold-tolerant variety were 9.6% and 2.8% higher than those of the conventional variety, respectively. Under chilling stress, the root diameter of the cold-tolerant variety remained stable, while root length decreased by 24.5%. In contrast, the conventional variety exhibited the opposite response. Growth of the cold-tolerant variety slowed during stress but accelerated significantly after temperature recovery, achieving 1–2 more leaf ages than the conventional variety. The SPAD value (chlorophyll content) of the cold-tolerant variety was less affected, remaining 14.3% higher than the conventional variety, thereby maintaining higher photosynthetic efficiency. The enhanced stress tolerance of XY335 correlated with a robust antioxidant system: leaf peroxidase (POD) activity was 60.7% higher, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content was 42.4% lower compared to KH8. In summary, under delayed chilling stress, the cold-tolerant variety ensured higher emergence and seedling uniformity by reducing coleoptile length, maintained root diameter and absorption capacity by shortening root length, preserved chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthetic performance under the protection of a POD-dominated enzyme system, and employed a “standby mode” with compensatory leaf growth to ensure adequate dry matter accumulation and yield formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Responses to Abiotic Stresses)

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35 pages, 945 KB

Open AccessReview

Bacillus as Premier Biocontrol Agents: Mechanistic Insights, Strategic Application, and Future Regulatory Landscapes in Sustainable Agriculture

by Eduardo Hernández-Amador, David Tomás Montesdeoca-Flores and Juan Cristo Luis-Jorge

Plants 2026, 15(3), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030516 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Agricultural productivity currently faces challenges such as soil fertility issues, climatic instability, pests and diseases, and anthropization. This drives a shift towards sustainable agricultural practices, including biopreparations—products derived from living organisms or their metabolites that serve as biofertilizers, biopesticides, biostimulants, or biodegradation agents. [...] Read more.

Agricultural productivity currently faces challenges such as soil fertility issues, climatic instability, pests and diseases, and anthropization. This drives a shift towards sustainable agricultural practices, including biopreparations—products derived from living organisms or their metabolites that serve as biofertilizers, biopesticides, biostimulants, or biodegradation agents. Among these, the genus Bacillus is a primary candidate for sustainable agriculture; however, this review primarily covers rhizosphere-isolated organisms referred to as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Bacillus strains possess a suite of direct and indirect mechanisms to promote plant development and biocontrol, as well as to tolerate various abiotic stresses. This review aims to describe all the mechanisms attributed to strains of this genus and their impact on different crops to promote plant growth, hormonal regulation (indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), abscisic acid (ABA), and ethylene), tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought, heavy metals, salinity and heat stress, as well as resistance to pests and diseases. Furthermore, this work analyzes quantitative data regarding yield improvements and the environmental variables that influence the consistency of Bacillus performance in the field. Finally, to provide a balanced perspective, the review incorporates future directions in research on biosafety and risk assessment frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biostimulants for Plant Mitigation of Abiotic Stresses in Plants)

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18 pages, 29541 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Performance of Distribution Shifts Between Endangered Coniferous and Broad-Leaved Tree Species in Subtropical China Under Climate Change

by Jie Miao, Yan Xu, David Kay Ferguson and Yong Yang

Plants 2026, 15(3), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030515 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Global warming has become one of the most serious threats to biodiversity. However, the responses of endangered tree species in subtropical regions to climate change and their potential distribution shifts remain elusive. In this study, we selected nine rare and endangered tree species [...] Read more.

Global warming has become one of the most serious threats to biodiversity. However, the responses of endangered tree species in subtropical regions to climate change and their potential distribution shifts remain elusive. In this study, we selected nine rare and endangered tree species in the subtropical forests of China encompassing both coniferous and broad-leaved groups, and conducted an assessment of their suitable distribution patterns and spatial shifts under current and future climate scenarios (SSP126, SSP370, and SSP585). For this we utilized an optimized MaxEnt model integrating multidimensional environmental variables including climate, soil, and topography. The results show that the model has high predictive accuracy after parameter optimization, with mean AUC values exceeding 0.98 for both broad-leaved and coniferous tree species. Our analysis of environmental factors indicates clear differences in distribution-limiting factors between the two functional groups. Broad-leaved species are primarily constrained by temperature-related variables, particularly the mean temperature of the coldest quarter (Bio11) and the mean diurnal range (Bio2), whereas coniferous species are more sensitive to moisture conditions, with the precipitation of the driest quarter (Bio17) as the key limiting factor for their potential distributions. Under current climatic conditions, highly suitable habitats for both functional groups are mainly concentrated in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Under future climate scenarios, broad-leaved species are in general expected to expand in marginal areas, while coniferous species show pronounced scenario dependence, with significant contractions occurring under certain scenarios and time periods. Despite the evident changes at distribution margins, the overall shifts in the centroids of potential distributions for both functional groups will be limited, with core suitable areas remaining relatively stable. This study reveals differences in the spatial response patterns between conifers and broad-leaved trees, and provides a scientific basis for the development of differentiated conservation strategies and the identification of conservation priority areas under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Taxonomy, Biogeography, Ecology, Conservation and Utilization of Gymnosperms)

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25 pages, 4770 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combined SMRT and Illumina RNA Sequencing Reveals the Alternative Splicing-Mediated Regulation of Anthocyanin Accumulation in Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

by Minmin Bao, Zhitao Li, Jinyong Zhu, Xiaoqiang Qiu, Yuanming Li, Zhenzhen Bi, Panfeng Yao, Zhen Liu and Yuhui Liu

Plants 2026, 15(3), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030514 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Anthocyanins, as natural pigments with high nutritional value, have been extensively studied in terms of their biosynthetic pathways. However, the specific impact of alternative splicing (AS) on anthocyanin biosynthesis in potatoes and its potential regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. This study analyzed full-length transcriptome [...] Read more.

Anthocyanins, as natural pigments with high nutritional value, have been extensively studied in terms of their biosynthetic pathways. However, the specific impact of alternative splicing (AS) on anthocyanin biosynthesis in potatoes and its potential regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. This study analyzed full-length transcriptome (SMRT) and Illumina RNA-seq datasets from three developmental stages of multiple potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars. After RNA-seq correction, numerous AS events were identified in both white and colored samples. To dissect the regulatory role of AS in anthocyanin biosynthesis, we further analyzed the AS patterns of anthocyanin biosynthesis-related structural genes and transcription factors (TFs). Through this targeted analysis, we found that a subset of these structural genes and TFs exhibited AS, generating functionally diverse transcript variants. Among these, the candidate gene StB3-like (Soltu.DM.04G010530), a B3 family TF associated with anthocyanin synthesis, was selected for preliminary functional validation. This gene produced three alternatively spliced transcripts (StB3-like-1, -2, -3). Transient co-expression with StAN1 (Soltu.DM.10G020850) in tobacco showed that StB3-like-2 and StB3-like-3 significantly increased anthocyanin accumulation, whereas StB3-like-1 had no effect. These results confirm that different transcripts produced by the alternative splicing of the same gene differentially regulate anthocyanin accumulation in a StAN1-dependent manner, laying the groundwork for further investigation into the role of alternative splicing in potato anthocyanin accumulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Exploring Plant Metabolic Pathways: Unraveling the Complexity of Plant Biochemistry)

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13 pages, 587 KB

Open AccessArticle

Allelopathic Potential of Newly Emerged Invasive Plant Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae) in Yunnan Province of China

by Fengping Zheng, Che Zhan, Kexin Yang, Qiurui Li, Zhijie Wang, Gaofeng Xu, David Roy Clements, Bin Yao, Guimei Jin, Shaosong Yang, Fudou Zhang, Michael Denny Day and Shicai Shen

Plants 2026, 15(3), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030513 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae) is a newly emerged invasive species in Yunnan Province, China, and its phytotoxic potential has not yet been studied. This study was conducted to explore potential allelopathic effects of C. vulgare and to identify its flavonoid and phenolic acid compounds. [...] Read more.

Cirsium vulgare (Asteraceae) is a newly emerged invasive species in Yunnan Province, China, and its phytotoxic potential has not yet been studied. This study was conducted to explore potential allelopathic effects of C. vulgare and to identify its flavonoid and phenolic acid compounds. Four aqueous extracts (roots, stems, leaves, and flower/fruit heads) of C. vulgare exhibited high inhibitory activity against the germination and seedling growth of Bidens pilosa and Digitaria sanguinalis. The inhibition rates of germination rate, germination index, root length, shoot length, and biomass of both species increased significantly with increasing concentrations, with B. pilosa being more inhibited than D. sanguinalis. Extracts from leaves and flower/fruit heads yielded the strongest inhibition, followed by stem extracts, with the lowest impact from root extracts. Flavonoids (65.41%) and phenolic acids (23.1%) collectively comprised 88.51% of all identified compounds. Thirty-eight flavonoid compounds and thirty phenolic acid compounds were selected for further analysis, representing 53.97% and 71.91% of the total content of flavonoids and phenolic acids, respectively. Many of the flavonoids and phenolic acids identified have been previously reported as known allelochemicals with possible allelopathic effects. This was the first study to show that the allelopathic potential of C. vulgare may aid its invasion and expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Invasive Alien Plant Species: From Phytochemical Diversity to Ecological Management, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 4111 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of the Maize ZmGT14 Gene Family Reveals ZmGT14-36 as a Drought-Responsive Gene Interacting with UGT85A2

by Minghao Sun, Yunlong Li, Sinan Li, Erna Wu, Yue Yin, Yan Sun, Shujun Li, Yuyang Duan, Xin Li, Quan Cai and Jianguo Zhang

Plants 2026, 15(3), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030512 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Drought stress significantly disrupts plant water balance and cell wall integrity, thereby inhibiting growth and development. The Glycosyltransferase 14 (GT14) family plays a pivotal role in cell wall biosynthesis and environmental stress responses; however, the mechanisms underlying its involvement in the drought response [...] Read more.

Drought stress significantly disrupts plant water balance and cell wall integrity, thereby inhibiting growth and development. The Glycosyltransferase 14 (GT14) family plays a pivotal role in cell wall biosynthesis and environmental stress responses; however, the mechanisms underlying its involvement in the drought response of maize (Zea mays L.) remain elusive. In this study, we identified 42 ZmGT14 members distributed across 10 chromosomes by genome-wide analysis. Phylogenetic relationships, gene structures, and conserved motif analyses indicated high intra-subfamily conservation. Promoter analysis revealed that ZmGT14 genes are enriched with various stress-responsive elements, including ABRE, DRE, and MBS. Transcriptomic profiling and RT-qPCR verification demonstrated that the expression of ZmGT14-36 increased by approximately 30-fold within 36 h of drought treatment. Further screening and point-to-point Yeast Two-Hybrid (Y2H) assays identified that ZmGT14-36 physically interacts with UGT85A2, a protein associated with redox homeostasis. These findings provide preliminary evidence that ZmGT14-36 may participate in the drought resistance response in maize. Collectively, our study elucidates the molecular evolutionary characteristics of the ZmGT14 family and provides a key candidate gene for the molecular breeding of drought-tolerant maize varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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22 pages, 3590 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Sethoxydim Herbicide on the Physiological Parameters, Photosynthetic Enzymes and Antioxidant System in Foxtail Millet

by Lizhi Li, Tao Jing, Xikai Lin, Yue Zhuang, Yiru Wang, Dan Liu, Huiling Du and Xiaorui Li

Plants 2026, 15(3), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030511 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) possesses characteristics such as strong stress tolerance and high yield. However, weeds compete with foxtail millet, leading to reduced crop yield, degraded quality, and even the promotion of pest and disease spread. Chemical weed control is currently [...] Read more.

Foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.) possesses characteristics such as strong stress tolerance and high yield. However, weeds compete with foxtail millet, leading to reduced crop yield, degraded quality, and even the promotion of pest and disease spread. Chemical weed control is currently the most practical and feasible method for preventing weed damage in foxtail millet production, but herbicides can harm the main crop, resulting in reduced yield. To investigate the effects of sethoxydim on the growth and development of foxtail millet, this experiment adopted a pot design, setting four concentration gradients for foliar spraying: 0.75, 1.5 (recommended dosage), 3 and 6 L of active ingredient per hectare (L ai ha⁻¹). Sethoxydim treatment hindered electron transport in photosynthesis, leading to a decrease in adenosine triphosphate synthesis and consequently a decline in the photosynthetic parameters of both photosystem I and photosystem II. Meanwhile, the activities and related gene expression of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC), NADP-malate dehydrogenase (NADP-MDH) and pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK) all showed a decreasing trend. In contrast, the activities and related gene expression of NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-ME) and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco); the contents of soluble protein and soluble sugar; and the activities of antioxidant enzymes including malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT), along with their related gene expression, exhibited a trend of first increasing and then decreasing, reaching their peak at a dosage of 1.5 L ai ha⁻¹ (T2 treatment group). Meanwhile, the continuous rise in O₂^·⁻ and H₂O₂ contents indicated enhanced accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants under herbicide stress. These results show that at the recommended dosage, although sethoxydim causes certain damage to foxtail millet, the plant can maintain certain photosynthetic functions and physiological stability through self-regulation and gradually return to normal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

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26 pages, 2567 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Plasticity of Phytochelatin Synthase Under Chromium Stress and Sulfur Availability in Scenedesmus acutus

by Michele Ferrari, Matteo Marieschi, Roberta Ruotolo, Radiana Cozza and Anna Torelli

Plants 2026, 15(3), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030510 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Phytochelatin synthases (PCSs) are pivotal enzymes in heavy metal detoxification, yet also implicated in sulfur homeostasis and redox regulation. In this study, we report the molecular and functional characterization of the PCS gene from the green alga Scenedesmus acutus (SaPCS), comparing [...] Read more.

Phytochelatin synthases (PCSs) are pivotal enzymes in heavy metal detoxification, yet also implicated in sulfur homeostasis and redox regulation. In this study, we report the molecular and functional characterization of the PCS gene from the green alga Scenedesmus acutus (SaPCS), comparing wild-type and chromium-tolerant strains of this microalga. RT-qPCR, immunoblotting and mass spectrometry analyses revealed that SaPCS expression and protein abundance are primarily regulated by sulfur availability rather than by chromium stress. Two protein isoforms (~70 kDa full-length and ~34 kDa truncated) were detected, both more abundant in the chromium-tolerant strain than the wild-type and responsive to sulfur availability. Furthermore, three alternatively spliced transcript variants (SaPCSa, SaPCSb, SaPCSc) lacking the C-terminal domain coding region but retaining a functional or partially disrupted N-terminal catalytic domain were identified, contributing to the post-transcriptional diversification of PCSs. Mass spectrometry analyses showed negligible phytochelatin production in response to chromium treatment, indicating that detoxification of this metal in S. acutus relies mainly on glutathione (GSH) conjugation and the ascorbate–GSH antioxidant cycle. Overall, these results suggest that SaPCS may promote chromium tolerance by modulating sulfur and redox metabolism rather than by driving phytochelatin accumulation, highlighting the remarkable functional plasticity of PCSs in algal stress responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metal Tolerance in Plants and Algae—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 8946 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of the WOX Family Reveals Potential Roles in Stem Development of Euphorbia hirta

by Qianyi Lyu, Shutong Chen, Xin Wang, Yuan Yuan, Hongrui Zhang, Wanqi Liang, Han Cheng and Zhi Deng

Plants 2026, 15(3), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030509 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

The homeobox transcription factor (TF) superfamily includes the WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX (WOX) family, which plays a critical role in adaptive plant growth. Specifically, WOX regulates stem growth in plants, with stems serving as the structural framework for laticifers in Euphorbia hirta. However, the [...] Read more.

The homeobox transcription factor (TF) superfamily includes the WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX (WOX) family, which plays a critical role in adaptive plant growth. Specifically, WOX regulates stem growth in plants, with stems serving as the structural framework for laticifers in Euphorbia hirta. However, the number of WOX gene family members in the E. hirta genome has not been reported. In this study, we identified 14 EhWOX genes in E. hirta and characterized their physicochemical properties, chromosomal locations, phylogenetic relationships, conserved motifs, gene structures, promoter cis elements, gene ontology (GO) enrichment, tissue-specific expression patterns, and subcellular localization. Chromosomal mapping indicated their distribution across nine chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis classified these genes into three evolutionary clades. Promoter cis-element analysis identified abundant light-responsive, hormone-responsive, and stress-responsive elements. GO enrichment suggested their broad involvement in diverse biological processes. Additionally, RNA-seq revealed high expression levels of EhWOX4-6 and EhWOX14 in stems. Furthermore, RT-qPCR confirmed tissue-specific expression in stems. Moreover, experimental evidence confirmed the subcellular localization and autoactivation capability of some WOX proteins that may be involved in stem development. Overall, this study provides a comprehensive characterization of the candidate EhWOX genes and provides a foundational resource for future functional investigations into their possible roles in stem and laticifer biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Bioinformatics in Plant Science)

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13 pages, 2498 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Seed Wings Optimize the Regulation of Temperature and Light on Smith Fir Seed Germination Timing

by Yanyan Li, Ziling Yang, Qian Yan, Guoyan Wang, Songlin Shi, Jingji Li and Peihao Peng

Plants 2026, 15(3), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030508 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Seed wings are widely recognized for facilitating dispersal and influencing germination in angiosperms, but their functional role in gymnosperm germination is poorly understood. To assess the effect of seed wings on the germination ecology of Smith fir (Abies georgei var. smithii), [...] Read more.

Seed wings are widely recognized for facilitating dispersal and influencing germination in angiosperms, but their functional role in gymnosperm germination is poorly understood. To assess the effect of seed wings on the germination ecology of Smith fir (Abies georgei var. smithii), we evaluated the germination of three seed treatments—intact seeds, mixed seeds (de-winged seeds mixed with detached wings), and de-winged seeds—under varying light and temperature conditions. Results showed that de-winged seeds achieved a final germination percentage of 48.5 ± 5.0%, which was significantly higher than that of intact seeds (26.0 ± 2.4%) and mixed seeds (32.5 ± 3.5%) (p < 0.001), confirming that seed wings significantly inhibit germination. There was no significant difference between intact and mixed seeds, and both were significantly lower than de-winged seeds (p < 0.001), suggesting that germination inhibition is likely mediated by chemical inhibitors in the wings rather than mechanical restriction. Optimal germination occurred at 15/2 °C–25/5 °C, while light significantly enhanced germination under cold conditions (5/1 °C), indicating conditional dormancy. These findings suggest that seed wings optimize the regulation of germination timing by imposing chemical inhibition that, combined with conditional dormancy, delays germination until favorable spring conditions, reflecting an adaptive strategy to seasonal environmental cues in subalpine ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Ecological Responses of Arctic and Alpine Plants to Climate Change)

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34 pages, 10038 KB

Open AccessReview

Unraveling Advances in Rice Male Sterility Systems: From Genetic Basis to Hybrid Breeding Innovation

by Wei Liu, Jinlong Ni, Changkai Ma, Jianbo Yang, Shimei Wang and Deze Xu

Plants 2026, 15(3), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15030507 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Heterosis is a landmark innovation in modern agriculture, which has been widely exploited to boost crop productivity. As a staple food for over half of the global population, rice depends heavily on heterosis for yield improvement. Notably, hybrid rice has made remarkable contributions [...] Read more.

Heterosis is a landmark innovation in modern agriculture, which has been widely exploited to boost crop productivity. As a staple food for over half of the global population, rice depends heavily on heterosis for yield improvement. Notably, hybrid rice has made remarkable contributions to global food security over the past several decades. Male sterility serves as the fundamental basis for efficient hybrid rice breeding, with cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) and genic male sterility (GMS) as the core systems employed in practical production. CMS, induced by mitochondrial genes, can be restored to fertility by nuclear restorer genes, thereby forming the essential genetic basis for the three-line hybrid rice system. GMS, mainly regulated by the nuclear genome, includes dominant and recessive nuclear sterility. Specifically, recessive environment-sensitive genic male sterility (EGMS) has facilitated the development of the two-line hybrid rice system for commercial hybrid seed production. The third-generation hybrid rice technology (TGHRT) is a transgenic approach developed for propagating stable recessive GMS lines. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest advances in rice male sterility systems, focusing on their genetic classification, origin, and molecular mechanisms. It further analyzes their application status, inherent limitations, future research directions, and development trends in hybrid rice production, aiming to deepen our understanding of the innovation and optimization of hybrid rice breeding technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Physiology and Crop Production)

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