Forests

21 pages, 3177 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using DAP-RPA Point Cloud-Derived Metrics to Monitor Restored Tropical Forests in Brazil

by Milton Marques Fernandes, Milena Viviane Vieira de Almeida, Marcelo Brandão José, Italo Costa Costa, Diego Campana Loureiro, Márcia Rodrigues de Moura Fernandes, Gilson Fernandes da Silva, Lucas Berenger Santana and André Quintão de Almeida

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071092 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Monitoring forest structure, diversity, and biomass in restoration areas is both expensive and time-consuming. Metrics derived from digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) may offer a cost-effective and efficient alternative for monitoring forest restoration. The main objective of this study was to use metrics derived [...] Read more.

Monitoring forest structure, diversity, and biomass in restoration areas is both expensive and time-consuming. Metrics derived from digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) may offer a cost-effective and efficient alternative for monitoring forest restoration. The main objective of this study was to use metrics derived from digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) point clouds obtained by remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) to estimate aboveground biomass (AGB), species diversity, and structural variables for monitoring restored secondary tropical forest areas. The study was conducted in three active and one passive forest restoration systems located in a secondary forest in Sergipe state, Brazil. A total of 2507 tree individuals from 36 plots (0.0625 ha each) were identified, and their total height (ht) and diameter at breast height (dbh) were measured in the field. Concomitantly with the field inventory, the plots were mapped using an RPA, and traditional height-based point cloud metrics and Fourier transform-derived metrics were extracted for each plot. Regression models were developed to calculate AGB, Shannon diversity index (H′), ht, dbh, and basal area (ba). Furthermore, multivariate statistical analyses were used to characterize AGB and H′ in the different restoration systems. All fitted models selected Fourier transform-based metrics. The AGB estimates showed satisfactory accuracy (R² = 0.88; RMSE = 31.2%). The models for H′ and ba also performed well, with R² values of 0.90 and 0.67 and RMSEs of 24.8% and 20.1%, respectively. Estimates of structural variables (dbh and ht) showed high accuracy, with RMSE values close to 10%. Metrics derived from the Fourier transform were essential for estimating AGB, species diversity, and forest structure. The DAP-RPA-derived metrics used in this study demonstrate potential for monitoring and characterizing AGB and species richness in restored tropical forest systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tropical Forest Ecology Monitoring—New Techniques and Future Implications)

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19 pages, 2905 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Regulates BVOCs-Induced O₃ Formation Potential Across Various Vegetation Types in the Sichuan Basin, China

by Qi Zhang, Zhanpeng Xue, Lin Yi, Jiayuan Wang and Enqin Liu

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071091 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Ground-level ozone (O₃) pollution is a problem when managing air quality in China, and biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are key precursors of O₃ formation. Vegetation type and temperature influence BVOC emissions, yet the differences in emissions across vegetation types [...] Read more.

Ground-level ozone (O₃) pollution is a problem when managing air quality in China, and biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are key precursors of O₃ formation. Vegetation type and temperature influence BVOC emissions, yet the differences in emissions across vegetation types and their temperature responses still exhibit significant uncertainties. This study was focused on the Sichuan Basin in China. It used the G95 model to develop a high-resolution BVOC emission inventory, allowing the analysis of emission characteristics for different vegetation types. The study also used a temperature sensitivity algorithm to assess how temperature changes affect BVOC emissions. The impact of these emissions on regional O₃ formation potential (OFP) was then quantified using the OFP method. The results show significant differences in BVOC emissions across vegetation types. Forests at the basin edges (mixed, broad-leaved, and coniferous) have much higher emission intensity (10.5 t/km²) than agricultural areas in the center of the basin (0.15 t/km²). In terms of composition, monoterpenes (MON) mainly dominate mixed and coniferous forests (42.28% and 58.37%, respectively), while isoprene (ISOP) dominates broad-leaved forests (64.02%). The study found that temperature generally increases BVOC emissions, which vary by vegetation type. Broad-leaved forests have the highest temperature sensitivity (3.94%), much higher than agricultural vegetation (0.03%). BVOC emissions exhibit a seasonal pattern of “high in summer, low in winter” and a spatial pattern of “high at the edges, low at the center”. Temperature also influences emission intensity and composition, thus driving variations in the potential for O₃ formation. Seasonally, different vegetation types show structural changes in OFP contribution. Broad-leaved forests, dominated by ISOP, show a significant increase in summer contribution (+8.0%), becoming the main source of O₃ precursors. In contrast, mixed forests, dominated by MON, show a clear decrease in summer contribution (−6.3%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)

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20 pages, 5236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Participatory Multi-Criteria Approach to Select Areas for Post-Fire Restoration After Extreme Wildfire Events

by Sara María Casados, Sergio Rodríguez-Fernández, Susete Marques, Ana María Monsalve Cuartas, Sergio de Frutos, Lluís Coll and José G. Borges

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071090 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Extreme wildfire events (EWEs) are becoming increasingly frequent in Mediterranean regions, posing significant threats to ecosystems. This study aimed to support post-fire restoration planning by developing a prioritization framework that categorizes areas according to different levels of vulnerability to the adverse impacts of [...] Read more.

Extreme wildfire events (EWEs) are becoming increasingly frequent in Mediterranean regions, posing significant threats to ecosystems. This study aimed to support post-fire restoration planning by developing a prioritization framework that categorizes areas according to different levels of vulnerability to the adverse impacts of EWEs. We developed a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach to classify these areas within a fire perimeter. The process begins with the collection of available spatial data to assess the pre- and post-fire conditions. Following this, a set of criteria and sub-criteria was established through a participatory approach with local stakeholders. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used to determine stakeholders’ preferences, which were then processed using the Criterium Decision Plus (CDP) version 4 software to support problem modeling. A combined consistency check was applied to ensure both individual coherence and group agreement. Finally, the methodology was integrated using the Ecosystem Management Decision Support (EMDS) software version 9, resulting in a spatial prioritization map that visually represents the levels of restoration priority and serves as a decision-support tool for post-fire restoration planning. Both the process and its results are discussed for an application to a large fire perimeter in the Vale do Sousa forested landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards and Risk Management)

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20 pages, 7644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

City-Scale Revegetation Strategies Impact on the Temperature-Related Long-Term Mortality: A Quantitative Assessment in Three Cities in Southern Europe

by Juan Manuel de Andrés, Ilaria D’Elia, David de la Paz, Massimo D’Isidoro, Felicita Russo, Mihaela Mircea, Maurizio Gualtieri, Sotiris Vardoulakis and Rafael Borge

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071089 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Nature-based solutions (NBS) have attracted increasing attention in local air quality and climate change adaptation plans as suitable measures to reduce health risks. Although several studies have reported health benefits from short-term urban cooling effects of NBS, medium- to long-term health benefits are [...] Read more.

Nature-based solutions (NBS) have attracted increasing attention in local air quality and climate change adaptation plans as suitable measures to reduce health risks. Although several studies have reported health benefits from short-term urban cooling effects of NBS, medium- to long-term health benefits are still poorly understood. In this study, we assess the changes in long-term mortality related to temperature fluctuations induced by city-scale vegetation actuations in three Southern European cities. We performed two annual high-resolution simulations with the Weather Research and Forecasting model to anticipate the impact of future revegetation strategies on temperature in these urban areas. Further, we assessed the impact of temperature changes on health using a country-specific minimum mortality temperature (MMT) reported in scientific literature. It was found that NBS could provide non-negligible reductions of long-term mortality related to temperature regulation (central estimate of 4.1, 1.2, and 3.4 cases avoided per year in Madrid, Milano, and Bologna, respectively). The effect of vegetation is site-dependent, and the cooling effect explains most of the benefits, especially in densely built-up areas of the cities analyzed. Future research should combine short/long-term temperature effects with other indirect implications (air quality, mental health) in the context of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on the Influence of Vegetation and Forest on Urban Air Quality and Thermal Comfort—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 2463 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MCDet: Target-Aware Fusion for RGB-T Fire Detection

by Yuezhu Xu, He Wang, Yuan Bi, Guohao Nie and Xingmei Wang

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071088 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Forest fire detection is vital for ecological conservation and disaster management. Existing visual detection methods exhibit instability in smoke-obscured or illumination-variable environments. Although multimodal fusion has demonstrated potential, effectively resolving inconsistencies in smoke features across diverse modalities remains a significant challenge. This issue [...] Read more.

Forest fire detection is vital for ecological conservation and disaster management. Existing visual detection methods exhibit instability in smoke-obscured or illumination-variable environments. Although multimodal fusion has demonstrated potential, effectively resolving inconsistencies in smoke features across diverse modalities remains a significant challenge. This issue stems from the inherent ambiguity between regions characterized by high temperatures in infrared imagery and those with elevated brightness levels in visible-light imaging systems. In this paper, we propose MCDet, an RGB-T forest fire detection framework incorporating target-aware fusion. To alleviate feature cross-modal ambiguity, we design a Multidimensional Representation Collaborative Fusion module (MRCF), which constructs global feature interactions via a state-space model and enhances local detail perception through deformable convolution. Then, a content-guided attention network (CGAN) is introduced to aggregate multidimensional features by dynamic gating mechanism. Building upon this foundation, the integration of WIoU further suppresses vegetation occlusion and illumination interference on a holistic level, thereby reducing the false detection rate. Evaluated on three forest fire datasets and one pedestrian dataset, MCDet achieves a mean detection accuracy of 77.5%, surpassing advanced methods. This performance makes MCDet a practical solution to enhance early warning system reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Forest Fire Detection and Monitoring)

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30 pages, 1325 KiB

Open AccessReview

Refined Wilding and Urban Forests: Conceptual Guidance for a More Significant Urban Green Space Type

by Melissa Vogt

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071087 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Urban forests have a definition that has developed over time. Initially defined as urban greenery or as a measure of human impacts from urbanisation on forest systems, urban forests have varying definitions and are more often referred to for urban greenery. This urban [...] Read more.

Urban forests have a definition that has developed over time. Initially defined as urban greenery or as a measure of human impacts from urbanisation on forest systems, urban forests have varying definitions and are more often referred to for urban greenery. This urban greenery and measures of outcomes in sustainability terms are in urban landscapes and surroundings. With more specific definitions according to forest system definitions the complexity, multiple functions and advanced outcomes and functions of urban forest systems compared to other urban green space (UGS) types is more clearly understood. This article, using a literature review, discusses the definition of urban forests influencing how their impacts are measured, expected, and optimised. With clarified definitions, urban forest quality is considered in the literature review by search terms and topics of selected articles. Examples of selected indicators of the quality of urban forests and then of software and metrics used to plan and design urban greenery are presented. Refined wilding as a concept for urban functional biodiversity is then compared and used as a conceptual frame to analyse findings and prove the relevance and contribution of knowledge of the concept itself. Indicators of measures are provided, and they lead to a suggestion for clearer defining of urban forests. The findings can influence planning, design, implementation, and evaluation of urban forests as a higher-quality UGS type with multiple functions. Urban forests require improved defining of the value, quality, and coverage of their UGS type to be optimised. Refined wilding can give conceptual guidance for understanding the multiple and advanced functions that urban forest biodiversity provides for urban landscapes and populations. Urban tree canopy and urban forest systems in an urban landscape, as compared to other UGSs that connect to forested areas, either urban or peri-urban, are important differentiating definitional factors. Different metrics encourage a measure of this difference. The human realities of an urban landscape and population will determine whether and how a forest system can exist in a suburban landscape and are influential as to whether an urban tree canopy compared to a multifunctional diverse stratified semi-natural system of wild native and non-native varieties is established and can be maintained. The importance of maintaining newly established and existing urban forests and trees is a significant factor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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20 pages, 6082 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Two-Stage Site Selection Model for Wood-Processing Plants in Heilongjiang Province Based on GIS and NSGA-II Integration

by Chenglin Ma, Xinran Wang, Yilong Wang, Yuxin Liu and Wenchao Kang

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1086; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071086 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Heilongjiang Province, as China’s principal gateway for Russian timber imports, faces structural inefficiencies in the localization of wood-processing enterprises—characterized by ecological sensitivity, resource–industry mismatches, and uneven spatial distribution. To address these challenges, this study proposes a two-stage site selection framework that integrates Geographic [...] Read more.

Heilongjiang Province, as China’s principal gateway for Russian timber imports, faces structural inefficiencies in the localization of wood-processing enterprises—characterized by ecological sensitivity, resource–industry mismatches, and uneven spatial distribution. To address these challenges, this study proposes a two-stage site selection framework that integrates Geographic Information Systems (GIS) with an enhanced Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA-II). The model aims to reconcile ecological protection with industrial efficiency by identifying optimal facility locations that minimize environmental impact, reduce construction and logistics costs, and enhance service coverage. Using spatially resolved multi-source datasets—including forest resource distribution, transportation networks, ecological redlines, and socioeconomic indicators—the GIS-based suitability analysis (Stage I) identified 16 candidate zones. Subsequently, a multi-objective optimization model (Stage II) was applied to minimize carbon intensity and cost while maximizing service accessibility. The improved NSGA-II algorithm achieved convergence within 700 iterations, generating 124 Pareto-optimal solutions and enabling a 23.7% reduction in transport-related CO₂ emissions. Beyond carbon mitigation, the model spatializes policy constraints and economic trade-offs into actionable infrastructure plans, contributing to regional sustainability goals and transboundary industrial coordination with Russia. It further demonstrates methodological generalizability for siting logistics-intensive and policy-sensitive facilities in other forestry-based economies. While the model does not yet account for temporal dynamics or agent behaviors, it provides a robust foundation for informed planning under China’s dual-carbon strategy and offers replicable insights for the global forest products supply chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Forest Engineering Technologies and Sustainable Practices)

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27 pages, 12277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Landscape Effects on Urban Park Thermal Environments Using ENVI-Met and 3D Grid Profile Analysis

by Dongyang Yan, Liang Xu, Qifan Wang, Jing Feng and Xixi Wu

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1085; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071085 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Blue–green infrastructure is widely recognized for mitigating the urban heat island effect. However, most existing ENVI-met 5.6.1 studies focus on average thermal conditions and overlook fine-scale spatial gradients. This study investigates the urban park in Luoyang City by integrating high-resolution 3D ENVI-met simulations, [...] Read more.

Blue–green infrastructure is widely recognized for mitigating the urban heat island effect. However, most existing ENVI-met 5.6.1 studies focus on average thermal conditions and overlook fine-scale spatial gradients. This study investigates the urban park in Luoyang City by integrating high-resolution 3D ENVI-met simulations, multi-source data, and field measurements to quantify thermal gradients between park interiors and surrounding built-up areas. A midline cut-off approach was applied to extract horizontal and vertical thermal profiles. The results show that (1) temperature and physiological equivalent temperature (PET) differences are most pronounced at park edges and transition zones, where vegetation and water bodies serve as natural cooling buffers; (2) urban form indicators, especially the building coverage and open space ratio, significantly impact wind speed and the PET, with greenery improving thermal comfort via shading and evapotranspiration, while impervious surfaces intensify heat stress; (3) the park exhibits a distinct cold island effect, with the average PET in the core area up to 12.3 °C lower than in adjacent built-up zones. The effective cooling distance, which is identified through buffer-based zonal statistics, rapidly attenuates within approximately 200 m from the park boundary. These findings offer a novel spatial perspective on thermal regulation mechanisms of urban landscapes and provide quantitative evidence to guide the design of climate-resilient green infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Designing Urban Green Spaces in a Changing Climate)

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16 pages, 3826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Implementation Strategies for Market-Oriented Ecological Restoration: Insights from Chinese Forests

by Hengsong Zhao, Wanlin Wei and Mei He

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071083 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Market-oriented ecological restoration is vital for advancing ecological civilization and promoting harmonious human–nature relationships. However, the precise implementation pathway remains unclear. Few studies specifically address challenges that arise during ecological restoration implementation. Ensuring the smooth and effective implementation and landing of ecological restoration [...] Read more.

Market-oriented ecological restoration is vital for advancing ecological civilization and promoting harmonious human–nature relationships. However, the precise implementation pathway remains unclear. Few studies specifically address challenges that arise during ecological restoration implementation. Ensuring the smooth and effective implementation and landing of ecological restoration projects harmonizes ecological and economic objectives at the regional scale and fosters sustainable development in the region. Based on the policies of market-oriented ecological restoration collected from various Chinese provinces, and through multi-level institutional analysis, the policy measures are categorized into three phases: early, middle, and late. For each phase, we summarize the challenges encountered in implementing market-oriented ecological restoration projects. Finally, by the method of constructing theoretical models, we propose sustainable countermeasures based on multiple theoretical models. The results show (1) China’s ecological restoration sector is experiencing rapid growth, and market-oriented policies in China, multiple Chinese provinces, and municipalities have enacted successive market-oriented ecological restoration policies, and the outlook for ecological restoration marketization in China remains highly promising. (2) The implementation process of current market-oriented ecological restoration projects confronts and encounters several challenges. These include the absence of project screening and evaluation mechanisms, limited investment and financing channels, ill-defined approval processes, ambiguous delineation of departmental responsibilities, insufficient industry incentives, and the absence of effective operational and management mechanisms. (3) To address the identified challenges, taking forest ecological restoration as an example, theoretical models should be developed encompassing six critical dimensions: the aspects of the mechanism, mode, approval process, management system, industrial chain, and platform. This aims to provide sustainable pathways for the effective implementation of market-oriented forest ecological restoration projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil and Water Conservation and Forest Ecosystem Restoration)

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20 pages, 1360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Resprouting Ability and Carbon Allocation of Robinia pseudoacacia L. Trees After Cutting at Different Stem Heights

by Citra G. Qurani, Kenichi Yoshimura, Bora Lee and Nur I. Maulidah

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1084; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071084 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

Resprouting is a vital mechanism that enables plants to recover from severe damage caused by environmental or physical disturbances by using non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs), as reflected in their respiration activity. In this study, we focused on resprouting activity and carbon allocation at the [...] Read more.

Resprouting is a vital mechanism that enables plants to recover from severe damage caused by environmental or physical disturbances by using non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs), as reflected in their respiration activity. In this study, we focused on resprouting activity and carbon allocation at the organ level in the resprouter species R. pseudoacacia L. We compared the changes in biomass production, NSCs concentration, and respiration rates in each organ (leaf, stem, and root) of five- or six-year-old R. pseudoacacia L. between partial and complete stem loss (tall-stump, TS, and short-stump, SS, respectively) at 2, 4, 9, and 14 months after cutting. TS had greater resprout biomass than SS within two months after cutting, whereas SS experienced a loss of root NSCs before recovery. Compared to TS, SS had higher leaf respiration rates, likely for storage replenishment, whereas root respiration rates remained similar across treatments. The TS maintained NSC levels during resprouting. However, the SS experienced temporary depletion and recovered within 14 months. Our findings provide new insights into the physiological characteristics of resprouters and invasive alien species with respect to organ loss and offer a novel understanding of efficient storage use during stress and low-cost carbon use for storage replenishment through rapid organ regrowth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

21 pages, 3801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Age-Specific Effects of Nitrogen Addition on Soil Aggregate Dynamics in Chinese Evergreen Forests

by Yunze Dai, Xiaoniu Xu and LeVan Cuong

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1082; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071082 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

In the context of China’s ecosystem facing a high intensity of nitrogen loads, carbon–nitrogen interactions are receiving increasing attention. Physical protection by soil aggregates is critical for soil carbon and nitrogen sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems; however, there is currently limited information on how [...] Read more.

In the context of China’s ecosystem facing a high intensity of nitrogen loads, carbon–nitrogen interactions are receiving increasing attention. Physical protection by soil aggregates is critical for soil carbon and nitrogen sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems; however, there is currently limited information on how nitrogen addition influences carbon and nitrogen dynamics across different stages of forest ageing. Herein, a field nitrogen manipulation experiment over 6 years was established in subtropical forests (46, 78, and about 200 years old) in China. Aggregate fractions and stable isotope analyses were used to assess the effects of nitrogen addition. The results show that forest soil was dominated by macroaggregates, and these increased with forest ageing (p > 0.05). The macroaggregates’ carbon content decreased with forest ageing (p > 0.05), while the macroaggregates’ nitrogen content was highest in the 200-year-old forest. Nitrogen addition increased the aggregates’ carbon and nitrogen concentrations in the 46- and 200-year-old forests. The macroaggregates, under nitrogen addition in the 78- and 200-year-old forests, were relatively weak, while forest age and nitrogen addition mainly affected macroaggregate carbon and nitrogen concentrations to promote their carbon and nitrogen storage, and the macroaggregates were the main storage unit for fixing and protecting new carbon in soils. Nitrogen addition increased the macroaggregates’ δ¹³C abundance in the 78- and 200-year-old forests and decreased it in the 46-year-old forest (p > 0.05); significantly increased the macroaggregates’ δ¹⁵N in the 46-year-old forest (p < 0.05), and decreased the macroaggregates’ δ¹⁵N in the 200-year-old forest (p > 0.05). Considering the distribution of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N in the aggregates, the effect of nitrogen addition on the dynamic mechanism of soil aggregate carbon and nitrogen fractions varied based on forest age and aggregate size. Correlation analysis further revealed that soil total phosphorus, NH₄⁺-N, NO₃⁻-N, dissolved organic nitrogen, pH, texture, etc., were the primary predictors explaining most of the variation in aggregate fractions and their δ¹³C distribution. In summary, the effect of nitrogen deposition on the carbon and nitrogen stability of soil aggregates in broad-leaved forests depends on forest age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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18 pages, 3892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Increasing Tree Cover on Landscape Metrics and Connectivity: A Cellular Automata Modelling Approach

by Andrew Speak, Claire Holt, Polyanna Bispo, Ewan McHenry and Matthew Dennis

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1081; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071081 - 28 Jun 2025

Abstract

The United Kingdom has a low percentage cover of woodland, which exists in small, highly fragmented patches. Plans to increase the cover from 14.5% to 17.5% by 2050 will require guidance to help target the planting of new forests to maximise ecological connectivity. [...] Read more.

The United Kingdom has a low percentage cover of woodland, which exists in small, highly fragmented patches. Plans to increase the cover from 14.5% to 17.5% by 2050 will require guidance to help target the planting of new forests to maximise ecological connectivity. This study develops a novel approach to landscape simulation utilising real-world spatial boundary data. The Colne Valley river watershed is chosen as a study site. Three different future woodland creation goals (+10, 30, and 50%) are tested alongside manipulations of the mean new patch size and the mode in which new woodland is created in relation to existing woodland. Scenarios which expanded existing woodland and used riparian planting created larger, more connected patches with more core area. The model outputs are used to assess the impact of the UK woodland increase plans, and past woodland creation efforts are assessed. Increasing the percentage cover generally boosted connectivity, functional connectivity (species dispersals), and increased patch size and core area index. We suggest that proximal growth offers the greatest benefits in terms of biodiversity, but in terms of habitat connectivity smaller isolated woodland patches may also be needed as stepping stones to aid dispersal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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24 pages, 3984 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Stem Heating Enhances Growth but Reduces Earlywood Lumen Size in Two Pine Species and a Ring-Porous Oak

by J. Julio Camarero, Filipe Campelo, Jesús Revilla de Lucas, Michele Colangelo and Álvaro Rubio-Cuadrado

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071080 - 28 Jun 2025

Abstract

Climate models forecast warmer winter conditions, which could lead to an earlier spring xylem phenology in trees. Localized stem heat experiments mimic this situation and have shown that stem warming leads to an earlier cambial resumption in evergreen conifers. However, there are still [...] Read more.

Climate models forecast warmer winter conditions, which could lead to an earlier spring xylem phenology in trees. Localized stem heat experiments mimic this situation and have shown that stem warming leads to an earlier cambial resumption in evergreen conifers. However, there are still few comprehensive studies comparing the responses to stem heating in coexisting conifers and hardwoods, particularly in drought-prone regions where temperatures are rising. We addressed this issue by comparing the responses (xylem phenology, wood anatomy, growth, and sapwood concentrations of non-structural carbohydrates—NSCs) of two pines (the Eurosiberian Pinus sylvestris L., and the Mediterranean Pinus pinaster Ait.) and a ring-porous oak (Quercus pyrenaica Willd.) to stem heating. We used the Vaganov-Shashkin growth model (VS model) to simulate growth phenology considering several emission scenarios and warming rates. Stem heating in winter advanced cambial phenology in P. pinaster and Q. pyrenaica and enhanced radial growth of the three species 1–2 years after the treatment, but reduced the transversal lumen area of earlywood conduits. P. sylvestris showed a rapid and high growth enhancement, whereas the oak responded with a 1-year delay. Heated P. pinaster and Q. pyrenaica trees showed lower sapwood starch concentrations than non-heated trees. These results partially agree with projections of the VS model, which forecasts earlier growth onset, particularly in P. pinaster, as climate warms. Climate-growth correlations show that growth may be enhanced by warm conditions in late winter but also reduced if this is followed by dry-warm growing seasons. Therefore, forecasted advancements of xylem onset in spring in response to warmer winters may not necessarily translate into enhanced growth if warming reduces the hydraulic conductivity and growing seasons become drier. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drought Tolerance in Trees: Growth and Physiology)

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18 pages, 1311 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bite by Bite: How Ungulate Browsing Shapes North America’s Forest Future

by Darius Hardalau, Vladut Stefanescu, Mindaugas Bakševičius, Michael Manton, Charles Ruffner, Gediminas Brazaitis, Georgeta Ionescu and Ovidiu Ionescu

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071079 - 28 Jun 2025

Abstract

Ungulate browsing represents a contemporary issue for forest development, influencing forest regeneration, composition, and management practices across the world, especially in North America. This review synthesizes findings from 101 studies conducted between 1980 and 2025 to examine patterns of herbivory damage through browsing [...] Read more.

Ungulate browsing represents a contemporary issue for forest development, influencing forest regeneration, composition, and management practices across the world, especially in North America. This review synthesizes findings from 101 studies conducted between 1980 and 2025 to examine patterns of herbivory damage through browsing by moose, elk, white-tailed deer, black-tailed deer, and bison. Despite regional variation, high ungulate density consistently emerges as the primary factor driving browsing intensity and ecological and economic impact, leading to decreased social acceptance of coexistence with ungulates. This review highlights the selective suppression of palatable species such as balsam fir, red oak, and white cedar, leading to shifts toward less-preferred conifers. Preventive and control measures, ranging from fencing and repellents to regulated hunting, are widely implemented but vary in effectiveness and social acceptability. Although predator presence is an evident controlling factor, it was not statistically associated in this review with reduced browsing, nor with behavioral or trophic cascade effects. Ultimately, this study underscores the importance of integrated management strategies that combine silvicultural adaptation, population control, and, where feasible, predator reintroduction to ensure forest resilience and sustainability in the face of increasing pressure from climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions in Forests)

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30 pages, 2108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Evaluation of Strategic Directions for Strengthening Forestry Workforce Sustainability

by Mario Šporčić, Matija Landekić, Zdravko Pandur, Marin Bačić, Matej Matošević, David Mijoč and Jusuf Musić

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1078; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071078 - 28 Jun 2025

Abstract

The forestry sector is increasingly dealing with a significant lack of labor and faces the difficult task of securing a professional, stable and sustainable manpower. In this study, different strategic directions for strengthening forestry workforce sustainability are presented and evaluated. The considered strategic [...] Read more.

The forestry sector is increasingly dealing with a significant lack of labor and faces the difficult task of securing a professional, stable and sustainable manpower. In this study, different strategic directions for strengthening forestry workforce sustainability are presented and evaluated. The considered strategic directions were developed with respect to forestry employees’ views on necessary measures for making the forestry occupation more appealing. Those measures were observed in three categories: (I) stronger recruiting, (II) stronger retention and (III) higher work commitment. The findings of the survey and other performed analyses resulted in the creation of four different strategic directions: (1) the direct financial strategy, implying increased direct monetary compensation as the main instrument and putting focus on labor productivity; (2) the indirect financial strategy, stressing worker wellbeing through indirect material benefits and aiming at performance quality; (3) the educational strategy, focusing on worker training and education and (4) the technical–technological strategy, aiming at the increased utilization of modern machinery and advanced technologies in forest operations. The results of the study include a comparison of the defined strategies by SWOT analysis and the construction of An analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) model as the multi-criteria tool for strategy evaluation. Considering the possibility and conditions of its implementation in the national forestry sector, the technical–technological strategy has been evaluated as best option to pursue. The objective of the study is to contribute to enhancing the sustainability of forestry workforce by defining critical issues and pointing to specific cornerstones that can assist in formulating effective future policies and strategies in the forestry sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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22 pages, 3179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Biochar from Hovenia dulcis Thunb. and Mimosa scabrella Benth. Species from the Mixed Ombrophyllous Forest

by Florian Empl, Miriam Schatzl, Sonja Kleucker, Alexandre Techy de Almeida Garrett, Fernando Augusto Ferraz, Luiz Henrique Natalli, Dimas Agostinho da Silva, Eduardo da Silva Lopes, Afonso Figueiredo Filho and Stefan Pelz

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1077; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071077 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

The Mixed Ombrophyllous Forest (MOF), inserted in the Atlantic Forest biome, is of great ecological value, with deficient management strategies. In this context, sustainable management helps to promote the regeneration and growth of individual trees and control others, while maintaining the natural forest [...] Read more.

The Mixed Ombrophyllous Forest (MOF), inserted in the Atlantic Forest biome, is of great ecological value, with deficient management strategies. In this context, sustainable management helps to promote the regeneration and growth of individual trees and control others, while maintaining the natural forest structure. This study therefore aimed to discuss opportunities and limitations of biochar, produced from two species from the MOF, which are currently only utilized to a limited extent in the study area in southern Brazil. A slow pyrolysis process at a lab scale was designed, biochar was produced, and key properties were analyzed from Hovenia dulcis Thunb. (chosen as an invasive species) and Mimosa scabrella Benth. (chosen as a native, fast-growing species), including branches and stems. The results showed that branches of Mimosa scabrella (BMS) had the highest biochar yield (30.32 ± 0.3%) and the highest electrical conductivity (415.08 ± 24.75 mS cm⁻¹). Stems of Mimosa scabrella (SMS) showed the highest higher heating value (HHV—31.76 ± 0.01 MJ kg⁻¹), lower heating value (LHV—31.03 ± 0.01 MJ kg⁻¹), and energy yield (49.1%), while the branches of Hovenia dulcis (BHD) showed the lowest values. For the elemental analysis, SMS showed the best results, with the highest amount of fixed carbon (78.62 ± 0.22%) and carbon content (85.87 ± 0.083%), and consequently the lowest amount of ash (3.52 ± 0.08%). BHD showed a better water-holding capacity (303.26 ± 15.21%) and higher pH value (7.65 ± 0.14). The investigations conducted on the biochar from both species indicate a strong suitability of these woods for producing high-quality biochar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Cultivation, Protection and High-Value Utilization of Forest Resources)

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18 pages, 3951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driving Factors of Arbor Forest Carbon Stocks in Yunnan Province, China (2016–2020)

by Jinxia Wu, Yue Chen, Wei Yang, Hongtian Leng, Qingzhong Wen, Minmin Li, Yunrong Huang and Jingfei Wan

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1076; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071076 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

In the context of accelerating global climate change, the accurate quantification of forest carbon sequestration at the regional scale is of critical importance to estimate carbon budgets and formulate targeted ecological policies. This study systematically investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics and driving mechanisms of [...] Read more.

In the context of accelerating global climate change, the accurate quantification of forest carbon sequestration at the regional scale is of critical importance to estimate carbon budgets and formulate targeted ecological policies. This study systematically investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics and driving mechanisms of arbor forest carbon stocks between 2016 and 2020 in Yunnan Province, China. Based on the “One Map” forest resource inventory, the continuous biomass expansion factor (CBEF) method, standard deviational ellipse (SDE) analysis, and multiple linear regression (MLR) modeling, the results showed the following. (1) Arbor forest carbon stocks steadily increased from 832.13 Mt to 938.84 Mt, and carbon density increased from 41.92 to 42.32 t C·hm⁻². Carbon stocks displayed a dual high pattern in the northwest and southwest, with lower values in the central and eastern regions. (2) The spatial centroid of carbon stocks shifted 4.8 km eastward, driven primarily by afforestation efforts in central and eastern Yunnan. (3) The MLR results revealed that precipitation and economic development were significant positive drivers, whereas temperature, elevation, and anthropogenic disturbances were major limiting factors. A negative correlation to afforestation area indicated a diminished need for new plantations as forest quality and quantity improved. These results provided a theoretical foundation for spatially differentiated carbon sequestration strategies in Yunnan, providing key insights for reinforcing ecological security in Southwest China and enhancing national carbon neutrality objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Inventory: The Monitoring of Biomass and Carbon Stocks)

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29 pages, 27765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Framework for NDVI and LAI Forecasting with Climate Factors: A Case Study in Oujiang River Basin, Southeast China

by Zhixu Bai, Qianwen Wu, Minjie Zhou, Ye Tian, Jiongwei Sun, Fangqing Jiang and Yue-Ping Xu

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071075 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

In the context of increasingly severe climate change, studying the relationship between climate factors and vegetation dynamics is crucial for ecological conservation and sustainable development. This study focuses on the Oujiang River Basin from 1981 to 2022, aiming to quantitatively model the interactions [...] Read more.

In the context of increasingly severe climate change, studying the relationship between climate factors and vegetation dynamics is crucial for ecological conservation and sustainable development. This study focuses on the Oujiang River Basin from 1981 to 2022, aiming to quantitatively model the interactions among temperature, precipitation, the NDVI, and the LAI. Addressing the lack of approaches for forecasting high-resolution LAI data and existing LAI data that are usually interpreted from NDVI data, we proposed a two-step inversion framework: first, modeling the response of the NDVI to climate variables; second, predicting the LAI using the NDVI as a mediating variable. By integrating long-term remote sensing datasets (GIMMS and MODIS NDVI) with meteorological data and applying trend analysis, spatial correlation analysis, and clustering techniques (K-Means and Possibilistic C-Means), we identified spatial heterogeneity in vegetation response patterns. The study results showed that (1) climate factors have a distinctly spatially heterogeneous impact on the NDVI and LAI; (2) temperature is identified as the dominant factor in most regions; and (3) the LAI prediction model based on the climate factors NDVI and NDVI–LAI relationships shows good accuracy in the medium-to-high range of the LAI, with an R² value ranging from 0.516 to 0.824. This study provides a scalable approach to improve LAI estimation and monitor vegetation dynamics in complex terrain under changing climate conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Hydrology)

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21 pages, 4559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Forest Trail Degradation Susceptibility Using GIS-Based Explainable Machine Learning

by Hyeryeon Jo, Youngeun Kang and Seungwoo Son

Forests 2025, 16(7), 1074; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16071074 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

Effective trail management is essential for preventing environmental degradation and promoting sustainable recreational use. This study proposes a GIS-based, explainable machine learning framework for predicting forest trail degradation using exclusively environmental variables, eliminating the need for costly visitor monitoring data that remains unavailable [...] Read more.

Effective trail management is essential for preventing environmental degradation and promoting sustainable recreational use. This study proposes a GIS-based, explainable machine learning framework for predicting forest trail degradation using exclusively environmental variables, eliminating the need for costly visitor monitoring data that remains unavailable in most operational forest settings. Field surveys conducted in Geumjeongsan, South Korea, classified trail segments as degraded or non-degraded based on physical indicators such as erosion depth, trail width, and soil hardness. Environmental predictors—including elevation, slope, trail slope alignment (TSA), topographic wetness index (TWI), vegetation type, and soil texture—were derived from spatial analysis. Three machine learning algorithms (Binary Logistic Regression, Random Forest, and Gradient Boosting) were systematically compared using confusion matrix metrics and AUC-ROC (Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve). Random Forest (RF) was selected for its strong performance (AUC-ROC = 0.812) and seamless integration with SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) for transparent interpretation. Spatial block cross-validation achieved an AUC-ROC of 0.729, confirming robust spatial generalization. SHAP analysis revealed vegetation type as the most significant predictor, with hardwood forests showing higher degradation susceptibility than mixed forests. A susceptibility map generated from the RF model indicated that 40.7% of the study area faces high to very high degradation risk. This environmental-only approach enables proactive trail management across data-limited forest systems globally, providing actionable insights for sustainable trail maintenance without requiring visitor use data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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