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Enhancing Deforestation Detection Through Multi-Domain Adaptation with Uncertainty Estimation
A Standardized Framework to Estimate Drought-Induced Vulnerability and Its Temporal Variation in Woody Plants Based on Growth
Carbon Flux Modeling with the Calibrated Biome-BGCMuSo in China’s Tropical Forests: Natural and Rubber-Planted Forests

Journal Description

Forests

Forests is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.1 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests.

Impact Factor: 2.5 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.7 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1999-4907

Latest Articles

15 pages, 2292 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized and Reliable Protoplast Isolation for Transient Gene Expression Studies in the Gymnosperm Tree Species Pinus densiflora

by Tram Thi Thu Nguyen, Na-Young Choi, Seung-Won Pyo, Young-Im Choi and Jae-Heung Ko

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1373; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091373 - 26 Aug 2025

Efficient protoplast isolation and gene transfection remain significant challenges in gymnosperms, particularly in Pinus species, where stable transformation is highly limited. Conventional pine protoplast preparation methods have resulted in extremely low transfection efficiencies, hindering functional genomic studies. This study presents an optimized method [...] Read more.

Efficient protoplast isolation and gene transfection remain significant challenges in gymnosperms, particularly in Pinus species, where stable transformation is highly limited. Conventional pine protoplast preparation methods have resulted in extremely low transfection efficiencies, hindering functional genomic studies. This study presents an optimized method for isolating high-yield, viable protoplasts from Pinus densiflora (Korean red pine), providing a robust system for transient gene expression assays. Splitting one-month-old cotyledons produced the highest mesophyll protoplast yield (5.0 × 10⁶ cells/g FW), which further increased to 1.2 × 10⁷ cells/g FW after optimizing the enzyme mixture (4.5% cellulase, 0.7% pectinase, 3% hemicellulase), maintaining viability above 86%. Developing xylem and whole-stem protoplasts were also successfully isolated by mitigating resin leakage and debris contamination, with a 17% sucrose gradient yielding 7.4 × 10⁴ cells/g FW at 81.9% viability. Overcoming prior inefficiencies, this protocol significantly enhances gene transfection efficiency, achieving 94.1% GFP transformation with 82.9% viability. Furthermore, transient activation assays confirmed strong activation of pine-derived reporters by native effectors, underscoring the assay’s suitability for studying gymnosperm-specific gene regulation. Given the limited stable transformation strategies available for Pinus species, this optimized protoplast transient gene expression system provides a practical and reliable platform for transient gene expression analysis, offering valuable opportunities for studying gene function and regulation in gymnosperms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

18 pages, 5328 KB

Open AccessArticle

Morpho-Physiological Responses During Dark-Induced Leaf Senescence in Cunninghamia lanceolata Seedlings

by Zhijun Huang, Qingqing Liu, Xianhua Zou, Liqin Zhu, Xiangqing Ma and Rongzhen Huang

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091372 - 26 Aug 2025

Low inner leaves in the thick canopy of dense Chinese fir plantations frequently show premature senescence and dieback regardless of age. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, a 28-day growth chamber experiment was conducted under dark conditions to induce leaf senescence. Changes in leaf [...] Read more.

Low inner leaves in the thick canopy of dense Chinese fir plantations frequently show premature senescence and dieback regardless of age. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms, a 28-day growth chamber experiment was conducted under dark conditions to induce leaf senescence. Changes in leaf area, photosynthetic performance, and the responses of carbon metabolism and the antioxidant defense system were analyzed. Leaf area decreased significantly with time in darkness. The photosystem Ⅱ reaction center was damaged, and fluorescence parameters and chlorophyll contents decreased, resulting in reduced light energy capture and conversion efficiencies. Photosynthetic rate, apparent quantum yield, stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, and light use efficiency all decreased, while the light compensation point and intercellular CO₂ concentration increased. Antioxidant enzyme activities initially increased but eventually collapsed as the stress continued and H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde accumulated, causing membrane conductivity, i.e., membrane permeability, to increase by 122%. Meanwhile, reduced non-structural carbohydrates, especially total non-structural carbohydrates content, decreased by 45.32%, triggering sugar starvation and accelerating aging. Our study provided new physiological evidence for light-stress response mechanisms in Chinese fir. Specifically, it revealed that dark-induced leaf senescence was mainly caused by irreversible damage to the photosynthetic apparatus and oxidative stress, which together led to carbon starvation and ultimately death. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecophysiological Responses of Forest Tree Growth to Environmental Change)

22 pages, 1685 KB

Open AccessReview

Temperature Effects on Forest Soil Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Mechanisms, Ecosystem Responses, and Future Directions

by Tiane Wang, Yingning Wang, Yuan Wang, Juexian Dong and Shaopeng Yu

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1371; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091371 - 26 Aug 2025

Forest soil greenhouse gas emissions play a critical role in global climate change. This review synthesizes the mechanisms of temperature change impacts on forest soil greenhouse gas (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O) emissions, the complex response patterns of ecosystems, [...] Read more.

Forest soil greenhouse gas emissions play a critical role in global climate change. This review synthesizes the mechanisms of temperature change impacts on forest soil greenhouse gas (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O) emissions, the complex response patterns of ecosystems, and existing knowledge gaps in current research. We highlight several critical mechanisms, such as the high temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀) of methane (CH₄) and CO₂ emissions from high-latitude peatlands, and the dual effect of chronic nitrogen deposition, which can cause short-term stimulation but long-term suppression of soil CO₂ emissions. It emphasizes how climatic factors, soil characteristics, vegetation types, and anthropogenic disturbances (such as forest management and fire) regulate emission processes through multi-scale interactions. This review further summarizes the advancements and limitations of current research methodologies and points out future research directions. These include strengthening long-term multi-factor experiments, developing high-precision models that integrate microbial functional genomics and isotope tracing techniques, and exploring innovative emission reduction strategies. Ultimately, this synthesis aims to provide a scientific basis and key ecological threshold references for developing climate-resilient sustainable forest management practices and effective climate change mitigation policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Forest Ecosystem Sustainability: Integrating Plant Physiology, Microbial Ecology, and Spatial Technologies)

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36 pages, 2178 KB

Open AccessArticle

Linking Spatialized Sustainable Income and Net Value Added in Ecosystem Accounting and the System of National Accounts 2025: Application to the Stone Pine Forests of Andalusia, Spain

by Pablo Campos, José L. Oviedo, Alejandro Álvarez and Bruno Mesa

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1370; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091370 - 25 Aug 2025

This research objective is to overcome the shortcomings of the updated values added of the System of National Accounts 2025 (SNA 2025) in order to measure the spatialized total sustainable social income from forest ecosystems through an experimentally refined System of Environmental-Economic Accounting [...] Read more.

This research objective is to overcome the shortcomings of the updated values added of the System of National Accounts 2025 (SNA 2025) in order to measure the spatialized total sustainable social income from forest ecosystems through an experimentally refined System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (rSEEA). Sustainable income measured at observed, imputed, and simulated market transaction prices is defined as the maximum potential consumption of products generated in the forest ecosystem without a real decline in the environmental asset and manufactured fixed capital at the closing of the current period, assuming idealized future conditions of stable real prices and dynamics of institutional and other autonomous processes. A key finding of this research is that sustainable income extends the SNA 2025 net value added by incorporating the omissions by the latter of environmental net operating surplus (or ecosystem service in the absence of environmental damage), ordinary changes in the environmental asset condition and manufactured fixed capital adjusted according to a less ordinary entry of manufactured fixed capital plus the manufactured consumption of fixed capital. Sustainable income was measured spatially for 15 individual products, the area units being the map tiles for Andalusia, Spain, Stone pine forest (Pinus pinea L.) canopy cover was predominant, covering an area of 243,559 hectares. In 2010, the SNA 2025 gross and net values added accounted for 24% and 27%, respectively, of the Stone pine forest sustainable income measured by the rSEEA. The ecosystem services omitted by the SNA 2025 made up 69% of the rSEEA sustainable income. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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19 pages, 12490 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Soil CO₂ Emissions Between Managed and Unmanaged Stands of Quercus robur L. in the Republic of Serbia

by Velisav Karaklić, Miljan Samardžić, Saša Orlović, Igor Guzina, Milica Kovač, Zoran Novčić and Zoran Galić

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1369; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091369 - 23 Aug 2025

Soils act as sources or sinks for three major greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O). Approximately 20% of global CO₂ emissions are released from soils through the soil respiration process. Soil respiration (soil CO₂ emission) [...] Read more.

Soils act as sources or sinks for three major greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O). Approximately 20% of global CO₂ emissions are released from soils through the soil respiration process. Soil respiration (soil CO₂ emission) can account for over 85% of ecosystem respiration. The aim of this study was to compare managed and unmanaged stands of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) in order to investigate the impact of forest management on soil CO₂ emissions. We selected one managed and two unmanaged stands. The first stand (S1) represents a managed middle-aged stand, which is the optimal stage of development. The second stand (S2) belongs to the over-mature stage of development in an old-growth oak forest, while the third stand (S3) belongs to the decay stage of development in an old-growth oak forest. The closed chambers method was used for air sampling and the air samples were analyzed using gas chromatography (GC). Multiple regression models that include soil temperature (ST), soil moisture (SM), and their interaction provide a better explanation for variation in soil CO₂ emission (SCDE) (higher R² values) compared to regression models that only involve two variables (ST and SM). The study showed that SCDE in the decay stage of old-growth forest (S3) was significantly lower (p < 0.001) compared to the other two stands (S1 and S2). S3 is characterized by very low canopy cover and intensive natural regeneration, unlike S1 and S2. However, there were no significant differences in SCDE between the managed middle-aged stand (S1) and the over-mature (old-growth) stand (S2). Over a long-term rotation period in pedunculate oak forests, forest management practices that involve the periodic implementation of moderate silvicultural interventions can be deemed acceptable in terms of maintaining the carbon balance in the soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Environmental Changes on Forest Soil Quality and Health: 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 4687 KB

Open AccessArticle

F3-YOLO: A Robust and Fast Forest Fire Detection Model

by Pengyuan Zhang, Xionghan Zhao, Xubing Yang, Ziqian Zhang, Changwei Bi and Li Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1368; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091368 - 23 Aug 2025

Forest fires not only destroy vegetation and directly decrease forested areas, but they also significantly impair forest stand structures and habitat conditions, ultimately leading to imbalances within the entire forest ecosystem. Therefore, accurate forest fire detection is critical for ecological safety and for [...] Read more.

Forest fires not only destroy vegetation and directly decrease forested areas, but they also significantly impair forest stand structures and habitat conditions, ultimately leading to imbalances within the entire forest ecosystem. Therefore, accurate forest fire detection is critical for ecological safety and for protecting lives and property. However, existing algorithms often struggle with detecting flames and smoke in complex scenarios like sparse smoke, weak flames, or vegetation occlusion, and their high computational costs hinder practical deployment. To cope with it, this paper introduces F3-YOLO, a robust and fast forest fire detection model based on YOLOv12. F3-YOLO introduces conditionally parameterized convolution (CondConv) to enhance representational capacity without incurring a substantial increase in computational cost, improving fire detection in complex backgrounds. Additionally, a frequency domain-based self-attention solver (FSAS) is integrated to combine high-frequency and high-contrast information, thus better handling real-world detection scenarios involving both small distant targets in aerial imagery and large nearby targets on the ground. To provide more stable structural cues, we propose the Focaler Minimum Point Distance Intersection over Union Loss (FMPDIoU), which helps the model capture irregular and blurred boundaries caused by vegetation occlusion or flame jitter and smoke dispersion. To enable efficient deployment on edge devices, we also apply structured pruning to reduce computational overhead. Compared to YOLOv12 and other mainstream methods, F3-YOLO achieves superior accuracy and robustness, attaining the highest mAP@50 of 68.5% among all compared methods on the dataset while requiring only 5.4 GFLOPs of computational cost and maintaining a compact parameter count of 2.6 M, demonstrating exceptional efficiency and effectiveness. These attributes make it a reliable, low-latency solution well-suited for real-time forest fire early warning systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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18 pages, 864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rights Interactions of Forest Tenure and Carbon Sequestration in China

by Ying Lin, Lei Li, Wenjian He and Yuan Zhao

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1367; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091367 - 23 Aug 2025

Although forest tenure devolution has been widely implemented, limited research has examined the carbon sequestration effects of property rights, particularly the interactions among rights within the tenure bundle. This research quantifies the structure of forest tenure at the village level over a 20-year [...] Read more.

Although forest tenure devolution has been widely implemented, limited research has examined the carbon sequestration effects of property rights, particularly the interactions among rights within the tenure bundle. This research quantifies the structure of forest tenure at the village level over a 20-year period (2000–2019) and links it with village-year satellite observations of forest carbon sequestration. Using two-way fixed effects regression, interaction effect models, and mediation analysis, the research examines the carbon responses to devolved forest tenure, with particular attention to the interactions among tenure rights and the heterogeneity across forest types. Empirical results indicate that the logging right constitutes the core component of the tenure bundle that promotes carbon sequestration in mature forests and shrublands. When the logging right was completely absent, the impact of ownership on carbon sequestration became insignificant. Tenure rights bundles interact significantly in shaping carbon sequestration outcomes in mature forests. Specifically, longer tenure duration reinforces the effects of ownership and logging rights, whereas transferability tends to substitute for their returns. In terms of young plantations, only official certification of ownership would promote their carbon sequestration and there are no interaction impacts between rights. Further analyses combining farmer behavior find that the reduction in logging intensity, rather than frequency, is a significant channel for logging rights to promote carbon sequestration of mature stands. Ownership increases the frequency but the intensity of afforestation/reforestation, which in turn increases carbon sequestration of young plantations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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15 pages, 2133 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tree Species Identity Drives Fungal, but Not Bacterial, Soil Community Shifts in Tropical Monoculture Plantations

by Kristin Saltonstall, Erin R. Spear, Martyna A. Glodowska and Jefferson S. Hall

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1366; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091366 - 23 Aug 2025

Tree plantations can help reverse the negative impacts of deforestation and land degradation worldwide, and soil microbial communities play key roles in tree growth and productivity. We studied microbial communities in the bulk soil of five native species monoculture plantations in the Republic [...] Read more.

Tree plantations can help reverse the negative impacts of deforestation and land degradation worldwide, and soil microbial communities play key roles in tree growth and productivity. We studied microbial communities in the bulk soil of five native species monoculture plantations in the Republic of Panamá to assess how bacteria and fungi were affected by soil chemistry and plant identity after seven years of tree growth. Relative to the other species, Terminalia amazonia accumulated over three times the aboveground biomass and had lower mortality. Soil nutrients, especially phosphorus, were low, and we found no differences in soil chemistry across the five plantation types. Similarly, there was no difference in alpha diversity of the soil microbial communities across plantation types, and the bacterial communities showed no compositional variation or enrichment of any individual taxa. However, soil fungal communities differed in T. amazonia plantations as compared to the others, exhibiting enrichment or absence of specific taxa of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and putative phytopathogens. Our results suggest that T. amazonia may associate with certain microbial taxa that help it overcome low nutrient availability in these habitats. Consideration of plant–soil–microbe interactions in restoration efforts may facilitate tree growth and help to promote climate resilient forested areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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16 pages, 2127 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Cone Maturity and Effect of Temperature, Light, and Stress Conditions on Seed Germination of Cedrus deodara in Garhwal Himalaya

by Geetanjali Pokhariyal, Vinod Prasad Khanduri, Bhupendra Singh, Rajender Singh Bali, Indra Singh, Deepa Rawat and Manoj Kumar Riyal

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1365; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091365 - 23 Aug 2025

Maturity estimation before seed collection is necessary in reducing the costs of seed collection; it allows vigorous seeds to be collected, ensuring that maximum germination will be reached and producing quality planting stock. In addition to this, appropriate temperature, seed size, pH, light, [...] Read more.

Maturity estimation before seed collection is necessary in reducing the costs of seed collection; it allows vigorous seeds to be collected, ensuring that maximum germination will be reached and producing quality planting stock. In addition to this, appropriate temperature, seed size, pH, light, and stress conditions also influence germination. Cones of Cedrus deodara were collected at different intervals to estimate the maturity of the cones. A seed germination test was conducted in the laboratory under constant temperature, seed size, pH, light conditions, and water and salinity stress conditions. Significant (p < 0.05) variations in cones, such as seed morphological characteristics, germination, and related parameters, of C. deodara at different maturity periods were observed. The morphological traits of cones, such as seed weight, seed length, seed width, and seed germination, increased with increasing maturity, while the cone weight, moisture contents, specific gravity, and seed moisture decreased with increasing maturity. A constant temperature of 15 °C to 20 °C (98.0% to 92.0%) and the use of large-sized seeds (99.0%) led to maximum germination. Lower concentrations of Polyethylene glycol (98.0%) and NaCl (78.0%) contributed to maximum seed germination. The germination of C. deodara is temperature-dependent and seed size, light, and high water and salinity stress significantly influence seed germination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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24 pages, 3592 KB

Open AccessReview

Little Giants: Lichens in Tropical Dry Forests

by María Cristina Martínez-Habibe, Pierine Espana-Puccini and Ricardo Miranda-González

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1364; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091364 - 22 Aug 2025

Lichens, complex symbiotic associations between fungi and photosynthetic partners, are widespread in terrestrial ecosystems but remain poorly studied in tropical dry forests (TDFs). This review synthesizes current knowledge on the diversity, ecological roles, adaptive traits, and ethnobotanical uses of lichens in TDFs, with [...] Read more.

Lichens, complex symbiotic associations between fungi and photosynthetic partners, are widespread in terrestrial ecosystems but remain poorly studied in tropical dry forests (TDFs). This review synthesizes current knowledge on the diversity, ecological roles, adaptive traits, and ethnobotanical uses of lichens in TDFs, with a focus on the Neotropics. As most lichens discussed here are crustose species that inhabit tree bark, this paper also provides a thoughtful review of the origin, distribution, and highly heterogeneous floristic composition of TDFs, which directly shape lichen habitats. It discusses how lichens have evolved to cope with seasonal water stress, emphasizing desiccation tolerance as a key feature of the symbiosis. This review also explores lichen community composition, interactions with host trees, microclimatic conditions, herbivory, and soil crust formation. Despite evidence of high species richness, functional diversity, and ecological importance, lichens in TDFs are largely overlooked in conservation strategies. Moreover, several regions remain vastly understudied, and many species likely remain undescribed. Ethnolichenological practices, though scarce, underscore the cultural and medicinal value of these organisms. Given the high rates of habitat loss and endemism in TDFs, there is a pressing need to expand research on lichen diversity and to investigate the evolutionary origins of their survival strategies. The conservation of these lichens is inseparable from the conservation of TDFs themselves. Understanding how lichens adapt to the harsh and variable conditions of TDFs is essential for integrating them into biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Importance of Lichen Diversity in Forests)

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34 pages, 6894 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Small-Scale Forest Carbon Sequestration and Storage: i-Tree Eco Model Improved Application

by Yuan-Xi Li, Wei Ma, Wen-Xin Zhang and Ping He

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1363; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091363 - 22 Aug 2025

Carbon sinks are of great significance for mitigating the greenhouse effect and climate change. However, only a few carbon sink measurement methods are suitable for small-scale research, such as at the city-region scale. Methods that can accurately distinguish the high–low gradients of forest [...] Read more.

Carbon sinks are of great significance for mitigating the greenhouse effect and climate change. However, only a few carbon sink measurement methods are suitable for small-scale research, such as at the city-region scale. Methods that can accurately distinguish the high–low gradients of forest carbon sinks within small-scale areas have not yet been established. To fill this gap, we used a tree allometric growth model—the i-Tree Eco model—and applied it to Tai’an, which is a National Forest City in China. By using indicator conversion methods, we innovatively combined the China Forest Resources Inventory Geographic Information Database with i-Tree Eco. The results showed that i-Tree Eco successfully estimated the carbon sinks provided by urban–rural forests (in 2019)—the total carbon storage in Tai’an forest was 5,828,165.90 t; the average carbon storage per hectare was 37.19 tC·ha⁻¹; the total carbon sequestration was 936,789.03 tC·yr⁻¹; and the annual carbon sequestration was, on average, 5.97 tC·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹. Our method improved the spatial resolution of carbon sequestration and storage compared to the commonly used InVEST model, from about 350 m × 350 m to 195 m × 195 m. Compared to the traditional IPCC method, the i-Tree Eco model provided greater accuracy and timeliness in small-scale carbon sequestration measurements, eliminating the need to wait for the next forest inventory to be published. Our method yielded results that covered the entire city region and better reflected the spatial heterogeneity of carbon sinks. We conclude that the innovative application of the i-Tree Eco model to urban–rural-scale carbon sink measurements provides stronger technical support for urban green space planning, as well as data guidance, in relation to local carbon mitigation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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12 pages, 1717 KB

Open AccessArticle

Land-Use Change Impacts on Glomalin-Related Soil Protein and Soil Organic Carbon in Huangshan Mountain Region

by Yuan Zhao, Yuexin Xiao, Wei Chen, Buqing Wang and Zongyao Qian

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1362; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091362 - 22 Aug 2025

The glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), a class of stable glycoproteins produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, constitute an important microbial-derived carbon pool in terrestrial ecosystems. However, the response of GRSP accumulation to land-use change and quantitative contribution to soil organic carbon (SOC) pools, as [...] Read more.

The glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), a class of stable glycoproteins produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, constitute an important microbial-derived carbon pool in terrestrial ecosystems. However, the response of GRSP accumulation to land-use change and quantitative contribution to soil organic carbon (SOC) pools, as well as the environmental and edaphic factors controlling GRSP dynamics in different land-use systems, require further elucidation. To address these knowledge gaps, we systematically collected surface soil samples (0–20 cm depth) from 72 plots across three land-use types—tea plantations (TP; n = 24), artificial forests (AF; n = 24), and natural forests (NF; n = 24) in China’s Huangshan Mountain region between July and August 2024. GRSP was extracted via autoclaving (121 °C, 20 min) in 20 mM citrate buffer (pH 8.0), fractionated into total GRSP (T-GRSP), and quantified using the Bradford assay. Results revealed distinct patterns in soil carbon storage, with NF exhibiting the highest concentrations of both SOC (33.2 ± 8.69 g kg⁻¹) and total GRSP (T-GRSP: 2.64 ± 0.34 g kg⁻¹), followed by AF (SOC: 14.9 ± 2.55 g kg⁻¹; T-GRSP: 1.42 ± 0.25 g kg⁻¹) and TP (SOC: 7.07 ± 1.72 g kg⁻¹; T-GRSP: 0.58 ± 0.11 g kg⁻¹). Although absolute GRSP concentrations were lowest in TP, its proportional contribution to SOC remained consistent across land uses (TP: 8.72 ± 2.84%; AF: 9.69 ± 1.81%; NF: 8.40 ± 2.79%). Statistical analyses identified dissolved organic carbon and microbial biomass carbon as primary drivers of GRSP accumulation. Structural equation modeling further demonstrated that land-use type influenced SOC through its effects on MBC and fine-root biomass, which subsequently enhanced GRSP production. These findings demonstrate that undisturbed forest ecosystems enhance GRSP-mediated soil carbon sequestration, emphasizing the critical role of natural forest conservation in ecological sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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22 pages, 2526 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Ecological Engineering Interventions on Carbon Sequestration: Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driving Mechanisms in Karst Rocky Desertification Control

by Pingping Yang, Shui Li and Zhongfa Zhou

Forests 2025, 16(9), 1361; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16091361 - 22 Aug 2025

Karst regions, characterized by thin soil layers, severe rocky desertification, and fragile vegetation, hold significant scientific value for achieving China’s “dual-carbon” goals. This study focuses on Zhijin County in Guizhou Province, integrating provincial carbon density data with forest resource inventory data. By constructing [...] Read more.

Karst regions, characterized by thin soil layers, severe rocky desertification, and fragile vegetation, hold significant scientific value for achieving China’s “dual-carbon” goals. This study focuses on Zhijin County in Guizhou Province, integrating provincial carbon density data with forest resource inventory data. By constructing a model to adjust aboveground forest carbon density (AGC) estimation parameters and utilizing the InVEST model alongside hotspot analysis, the research systematically examines the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of carbon storage from 2000 to 2020. These findings provide actionable strategies for enhancing carbon sequestration efficiency in ecologically fragile regions, supporting China’s “dual-carbon” policy goals. Key findings include: (1) Carbon storage exhibits a “growth-turning point” two-phase pattern, increasing by 0.46% from 2000 to 2015 but decreasing by 3.31% in 2020 due to construction land expansion. (2) There are significant differences in carbon storage among ecological engineering projects, with the highest carbon storage found in the “Grain-for-Green Program” project area and the lowest in the “National Rocky Desertification Control Program” area. (3) Elevation is the primary controlling factor for carbon storage, with rocky desertification showing notable spatial differentiation. This study provides theoretical support for the precise regulation of ecological programs and the development of high-precision carbon storage models in karst regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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19 pages, 3081 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating a Newcomer: Niche Differentiation and Habitat Use of Eurasian Red Squirrels and Native Species in a Forest Reserve Under Human Disturbance

by Wuyuan Zhang, Xiaoxiao Liu, Tong Zhang and Guofa Cui

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1360; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081360 - 21 Aug 2025

Understanding the integration of newly recorded species into forest ecosystems is essential for evaluating their ecological impacts on native wildlife diversity. In this study, we examined the spatial and temporal niche dynamics of three sympatric squirrel species within the Labagoumen nature reserve, a [...] Read more.

Understanding the integration of newly recorded species into forest ecosystems is essential for evaluating their ecological impacts on native wildlife diversity. In this study, we examined the spatial and temporal niche dynamics of three sympatric squirrel species within the Labagoumen nature reserve, a temperate forest located in northern China. Particular emphasis was placed on the recently documented Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and its potential interactions with two native species: Père David’s rock squirrel (Sciurotamias davidianus) and the Siberian chipmunk (Tamias sibiricus). Using camera trapping data from 91 sites (2019–2024), we examined habitat use, activity rhythms, and niche overlap under contrasting levels of human disturbance. A total of 3419 independent effective photos of squirrels were recorded. S. vulgaris showed a broader spatial distribution and a higher relative abundance index (RAI) in the tourist area, while native species were more abundant in the non-tourist area. All three species showed similar annual activity patterns based on the monthly relative abundance index (MRAI), although native species exhibited an additional activity peak in June–July. Temporal niche overlap (C_ih) and the coefficient of overlap (Δ) between S. vulgaris and native species increased during the tourist season, suggesting synchronized activity under high disturbance. In contrast, lower overlap in the non-tourist season indicated stronger temporal partitioning. The daily activity rhythm of S. vulgaris remained stable, while native species displayed more variability, especially in non-tourist areas. S. vulgaris also exhibited a significantly broader spatial niche breadth (B_i), suggesting greater habitat exploitation and adaptability. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) revealed no significant spatial segregation among the three species, indicating successful integration of S. vulgaris into the local community. Our findings emphasize the competitive advantage of S. vulgaris and demonstrate how human activities can restructure forest small mammal assemblages by altering spatiotemporal niche partitioning. We recommend long-term ecological monitoring to assess species diversity changes and guide adaptive conservation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Species Richness, Diversity and Habitat Modeling of Wildlife in Forests)

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14 pages, 1379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physical–Mechanical Properties of Innovative Biobased Particleboards for Application in External Building Façades

by Ramunas Tupciauskas, Andris Berzins, Martins Andzs, Rudolfs Berzins, Janis Rizikovs and Gunars Pavlovics

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1359; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081359 - 21 Aug 2025

Human activities undoubtedly increase greenhouse gases (GHG), negatively influencing global climate change. The building and construction sector uses at least 40% of the total energy consumption and produces the same percentage of GHG emissions. Therefore, the development of sustainable building materials is a [...] Read more.

Human activities undoubtedly increase greenhouse gases (GHG), negatively influencing global climate change. The building and construction sector uses at least 40% of the total energy consumption and produces the same percentage of GHG emissions. Therefore, the development of sustainable building materials is a crucial key factor for environmental protection. The study contributes to the development of bio-based façade materials using available raw biomass like wheat straw, grey alder, and softwood (a mix of spruce and pine), to promote reduced emissions of CO₂. Two technologies were used to produce high-density particleboards based on (1) steam explosion treatment and (2) the addition of bio-based suberinic acids as a binder. In addition to the biomass species and board type, the influence of conventional and mold hot-pressing was investigated on produced board properties: density, thickness swelling, modules of rupture and elasticity in bending, and internal bonding. The obtained particleboards demonstrate significant differences in terms of the tested properties depending on all variable factors. The best performance, in terms of physical–mechanical properties, was achieved by the conventionally hot-pressed board of steam-exploded grey alder particles, being influenced by the highest density (1380 kg/m³). Mold hot-pressing in most cases resulted in decreased performance of obtained boards. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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24 pages, 9308 KB

Open AccessArticle

Profiling Climate Risk Patterns of Urban Trees in Wuhan: Interspecific Variation and Species’ Trait Determinants

by Wenli Zhu, Ming Zhang, Li Zhang, Siqi Wang, Lu Zhou, Xiaoyi Xing and Song Li

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1358; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081358 - 21 Aug 2025

Climate change poses significant threats to urban tree health and survival worldwide. This study evaluates climate suitability risks for 12 common tree species in Wuhan, a Chinese metropolis facing escalating climate challenges. We analyzed risk dynamics and interspecific variations across three periods, the [...] Read more.

Climate change poses significant threats to urban tree health and survival worldwide. This study evaluates climate suitability risks for 12 common tree species in Wuhan, a Chinese metropolis facing escalating climate challenges. We analyzed risk dynamics and interspecific variations across three periods, the baseline (1981–2022), near future (2023–2050), and distant future (2051–2100), quantifying climate risk as differences between local climate conditions and species’ climatic niches. We further examined how species’ geographic distribution and functional traits influence these climate risks. The results revealed significant warming trends in Wuhan during the baseline period (p < 0.05), with projected increases in temperature and precipitation under future scenarios (p < 0.05). The most prominent risk factors included the precipitation of the driest month (PDM), annual mean temperature (AMT), and maximum temperature of the warmest month (MTWM), indicating intensifying drought–heat stress in this region. Among the studied species, Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don, Platanus acerifolia (Aiton) Willd., Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu & W.C.Cheng, and Ginkgo biloba L. faced significantly higher hydrothermal risks (p < 0.05), whereas Koelreuteria bipinnata Franch. and Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour. exhibited lower current risks but notable future risk increases (p < 0.05). Regarding the factors driving these interspecific variation patterns, the latitude of species’ distribution centroids showed significant negative correlations with the risk values of the minimum temperature of the coldest month (MTCM) (p < 0.05). Among functional traits, the wood density (WD) and xylem vulnerability threshold (P50) were negatively correlated with precipitation-related risks (p < 0.05), while the leaf dry matter content (LDMC) and specific leaf area (SLA) were positively associated with temperature-related risks (p < 0.05). These findings provide scientific foundations for developing climate-adaptive species selection and management strategies that enhance urban forest resilience under climate change in central China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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14 pages, 2286 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Differential Growth Dynamics Among Dominant Species Regulates Species Diversity in Subtropical Forests: Empirical Evidence from the Mass Ratio Hypothesis

by Zhangtian You, Pengfei Wu, Emily Patience Bakpa, Lifu Zhang, Lianyao Ji and Shuisheng You

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1357; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081357 - 21 Aug 2025

The Mass Ratio Hypothesis states that the growth dynamics of dominant species influence forest species diversity by regulating the niches of subordinate and transient species. However, this prediction has not yet been empirical confirmed in subtropical forests over long term. Using data from [...] Read more.

The Mass Ratio Hypothesis states that the growth dynamics of dominant species influence forest species diversity by regulating the niches of subordinate and transient species. However, this prediction has not yet been empirical confirmed in subtropical forests over long term. Using data from 1995 to 2017, we examined how dominant tree species regulate species evenness and richness by analyzing their height and diameter growth in three clear-cut forests (Castanopsis carlesii (Hemsl.) Hayata, Castanopsis fissa (Champ. ex Benth.) Rehder & E. H. Wilson, and Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. stands), combined with the mean value of species niche breadth (measures the diversity of resources a species utilizes) across the community, including separate analyzes for subordinate (persistently coexisting with dominants species) and transient species (temporarily occurring species). Our results showed that an increase in height and diameter growth of dominant species had a negative effect on niche breadth of subordinate species, which in turn reduced species evenness (p < 0.01) but showed no significant relationship with species richness (p ≥ 0.05). Growth dynamics of dominants had no significant influence on the niche breadth of transient species. The early-fast growing dominant C. lanceolata significantly restricted the niche breadth of subordinate species (1.16 ± 0.23), resulting in relatively low evenness (0.49 ± 0.11). Conversely, the late-fast growing dominant C. carlesii promoted niche expansion (6.62 ± 1.20), resulting in higher evenness (0.81 ± 0.02). C. fissa -dominated strands with intermediate growth increments, exhibited moderate species evenness. These findings provide long-term empirical support for the Mass Ratio Hypothesis by demonstrating that growths of dominant species modulate niche partitioning in subordinates and thereby shape species diversity in subtropical forest communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Restoration and Applied Conservation: Bridging Science and Practice)

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15 pages, 2548 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Use of Herbicides and Surfactants for Control of Two Midwest Forest Invaders: Amur Honeysuckle and Wintercreeper

by Kendra Cipollini, Hannah Anderson, Kasia Sandlin and Don Cipollini

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1356; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081356 - 21 Aug 2025

Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder) and wintercreeper (Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Maz.) are important invasive plants in Midwestern U.S. forests. We studied how two herbicides at two concentrations combined with three concentrations of a surfactant affected the mortality of these species. [...] Read more.

Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Herder) and wintercreeper (Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Maz.) are important invasive plants in Midwestern U.S. forests. We studied how two herbicides at two concentrations combined with three concentrations of a surfactant affected the mortality of these species. For L. maackii, we also studied the effect of application timing, and for E. fortunei, we also measured the treatment effect on native species after one year. For E. fortunei, triclopyr caused complete mortality at both low and high concentrations. The application of glyphosate increased mortality from low to high concentrations. The addition of a surfactant to glyphosate increased mortality, with the low concentration being as effective as the high concentration. There was a negative effect of surfactant on native species, with the high concentration of the surfactant causing a 75% reduction in native species compared to not using a surfactant. For L. maackii, there was greater mortality from the fall application of herbicides. Mortality was higher overall with the addition of a surfactant, but the effect of the surfactant was more important in spring. Glyphosate was more effective in fall, while triclopyr tended to be more effective in spring. Generally, lower concentrations of herbicides tended to have a higher efficacy in the fall. Our results can help managers determine the best method of chemical control that balances cost, efficacy, and recovery of native species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Invasive Species: Distribution, Control and Management)

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21 pages, 5183 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Ecological Contributions of Tree Assemblages in Urban Expressway Interchange Landscapes: A Case Study from Nanjing, China

by Mingxing Xu and Lu Ding

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1355; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081355 - 20 Aug 2025

Urban expressway interchanges, though primarily engineered for traffic efficiency, also serve as crucial ecological nodes within urban landscapes. This study evaluates the ecological functions of arborous vegetation across four typical interchange configurations—cloverleaf, single trumpet, double trumpet, and irregular—along the Nanjing Ring Expressway. Using [...] Read more.

Urban expressway interchanges, though primarily engineered for traffic efficiency, also serve as crucial ecological nodes within urban landscapes. This study evaluates the ecological functions of arborous vegetation across four typical interchange configurations—cloverleaf, single trumpet, double trumpet, and irregular—along the Nanjing Ring Expressway. Using the i-Tree Eco model, we quantified key ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration and storage, air pollutant removal, and stormwater mitigation. Field surveys documented 7985 trees from 45 species, with the 10 most abundant accounting for over two-thirds of total individuals. Results revealed that the trees sequester around 115 tons of carbon annually and store nearly 1850 tons in total, equivalent to an estimated economic benefit of ¥5.8 million. Trees also removed more than 1.5 tons of air pollutants and intercepted nearly 2400 cubic meters of stormwater each year. Species such as Sophora japonica, Phoebe zhennan, and Cinnamomum camphora emerged as key contributors to ecological performance. Among interchange types, double trumpet configurations yielded the highest overall service value, while single trumpet interchanges demonstrated superior efficiency per unit area. These findings highlight the underutilized ecological potential of transport-adjacent green spaces and underscore the importance of species selection and spatial design in maximizing multifunctional benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services of Urban Forest)

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17 pages, 3379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Responses of the NAC Gene Family in Acanthus ebracteatus: Involvement in Abiotic Stress Responses and Biosynthesis of Verproside and Verbascoside

by Jun Yao, Huiting Fan, Canming Xing and Ying Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(8), 1354; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16081354 - 20 Aug 2025

The NAC gene family, as a group of plant-specific transcription factors, plays crucial roles in plant growth, development, abiotic stress regulation, and biosynthesis of medicinal components. However, research on this family in the medicinal true mangrove Acanthus ebracteatus remains unreported. In this study, [...] Read more.

The NAC gene family, as a group of plant-specific transcription factors, plays crucial roles in plant growth, development, abiotic stress regulation, and biosynthesis of medicinal components. However, research on this family in the medicinal true mangrove Acanthus ebracteatus remains unreported. In this study, 56 NAC genes (AeNAC01-AeNAC56) were identified from A. ebracteatus transcriptome data, all encoding proteins with the NAM domain. Phylogenetic analysis classified them into two groups, with 51 in Group I and 5 in Group II. Comparative transcriptome analysis of roots, leaves, and flowers, validated by qRT-PCR, revealed lower AeNAC genes expression in leaves, with AeNAC10, AeNAC31, and AeNAC48 showing the lowest levels. Under salt, cold, and waterlogging, AeNAC03/44, /48/56 exhibited differential expression, suggesting their key roles in stress responses. Metabolome analysis further demonstrated that AeNAC14 and AeNAC48 significantly correlated with the biosynthesis of verproside and verbascoside, major bioactive phenythanoid glycodides in A. ebracteatus leaves with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. This study provides insights into the A. ebracteatus NAC gene family, identifying candidate targets for understanding the synergistic regulation of abiotic stress responses and medicinal component biosynthesis, which is significant for optimizing the plant’s growth and medicinal value via genetic engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests That Heal: Importance of Medicinal Trees and Forest Understory Plants Conservation and Use)

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