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Variable Density Planting: Using Marigolds as a Model System to Describe a Silvicultural Approach to Increase Structural Diversity
Urbanisation Shapes the Diversity, Composition, and Functional Profile of Endophytic Bacteriome in Common Urban Tree Species
Participation and Diagnostic Role of Epigeic Bryophytes in Forest Alliances in Central Poland
Factors Supporting a High Level of Understorey Plant Diversity in Ravine Forests (EU Priority Habitat Type)
Influence of a White Oak Species Gradient on Genetic Structure and Diversity of Quercus glabrescens (Fagaceae) in Mexico

Journal Description

Forests

Forests is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests.
Journal Cluster of Ecosystem and Resource Management: Forests, Diversity, Fire, Conservation, Ecologies, Biosphere and Wild.

Impact Factor: 2.5 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.7 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1999-4907

Latest Articles

19 pages, 3784 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ozone Flux-Based Response Functions for Visible Foliar Injury and Photosynthetic Traits in a Bioindicator Species, Viburnum lantana L.

by Elena Marra, Barbara Baesso Moura, Elena Paoletti, Andrea Viviano, Jacopo Manzini, Ryoji Tanaka and Yasutomo Hoshika

Forests 2026, 17(6), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060697 (registering DOI) - 13 Jun 2026

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) is a phytotoxic air pollutant that can impair visible foliar injury (O₃ VFI) and reduce photosynthesis in sensitive forest species. Viburnum lantana L. has been used as an in situ bioindicator of O₃ pollution in mountainous [...] Read more.

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) is a phytotoxic air pollutant that can impair visible foliar injury (O₃ VFI) and reduce photosynthesis in sensitive forest species. Viburnum lantana L. has been used as an in situ bioindicator of O₃ pollution in mountainous areas of Europe; however, flux-based response functions and critical levels (CLs) for this species have not yet been established. This study validated field-observed O₃ effects in V. lantana through experiments carried out in a Free-air O₃ eXposure infrastructure and determined which O₃ metric (exposure-based AOT40 or flux-based-POD₁) best explains O₃ effects on leaf physiology and VFI. Throughout the experimental period (T2: 3.5-month O₃ exposure), V. lantana saplings were subjected to ambient air (AA) conditions and elevated O₃ levels (1.5× and 2.0× AA). O₃ VFI appeared after 16 days in 2.0× and increased progressively during the growing season, reaching the highest Plant Injury Index (PII) values in the 2.0× (9.06 ± 3.24) compared with 1.5× and AA treatments (1.31 ± 0.62 and 1.29 ± 0.71). Elevated O₃ also significantly reduced net photosynthetic rate (A_sat), relative chlorophyll content (SPAD), and the maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (F_v/F_m); no significant difference in stomatal conductance (g_s) was found. The flux-based metric POD₁ better explained variability in O₃ VFI and physiological parameters. Based on the best-fitting models, CLs for V. lantana were estimated at 1.61 mmol m⁻² and 1.22 mmol m⁻² for a 4% reduction in A_sat and g_s, and a CL of 7.82 mmol m⁻² for the O₃ VFI-onset. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Responses and Functional Traits of Woody Plants Under Drought and Heat Stresses)

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49 pages, 11941 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genomic Offset Reveals Siberian Larch (Larix sibirica L.) Populations Potentially Vulnerable to Future Climate

by Serafima V. Novikova, Natalia V. Oreshkova, Vadim V. Sharov and Konstantin V. Krutovsky

Forests 2026, 17(6), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060696 (registering DOI) - 12 Jun 2026

This study evaluates the vulnerability of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica L.) populations to future climate change using a genomic offset (GO) framework that integrates genome-wide SNP data with environmental variables. We analyzed 488 individuals from 37 populations across climatically diverse regions of [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the vulnerability of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica L.) populations to future climate change using a genomic offset (GO) framework that integrates genome-wide SNP data with environmental variables. We analyzed 488 individuals from 37 populations across climatically diverse regions of Russia, genotyped by sequencing at over 20,000 SNP loci using the ddRADseq method. Gene–environment association (GEA) analyses (BayeScEnv, LFMM2, and RDA) identified candidate adaptive loci linked to six key bioclimatic variables. Based on these loci, GO was estimated using three approaches implemented in RONA–RDA, RDA, and Gradient Forest frameworks under multiple climate models (MIROC6, BCC-CSM2-MR, MRI-ESM2-0), scenarios (SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP5-8.5), and time periods (2041–2060, 2061–2080, and 2081–2100). Results revealed consistent spatial patterns of vulnerability, with northern and high-altitude populations, as well as populations from more continental and moisture-limited regions, exhibiting the highest GO and thus the greatest risk of maladaptation. In contrast, several central and southern populations showed relatively low vulnerability. The importance of temperature stability (isothermality) and precipitation of the driest month as key drivers of adaptive variation was highlighted. Despite differences in SNP datasets, population rankings remained highly consistent, supporting the robustness of predictions. Overall, our findings demonstrate substantial heterogeneity in climate vulnerability across the species range and provide a genomic basis for conservation strategies, including assisted gene exchange and climate-adaptive forest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Diversity, Adaptive Evolution, and Conservation Genomics of Forest Trees)

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12 pages, 2039 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Consumption During Drilling Mounting Holes in Furniture Elements Made of Particleboards Based on Alternative Raw Materials

by Zbigniew Potok, Barbara Prałat, Krzysztof Wiaderek, Tomasz Rogoziński and Marta Pędzik

Forests 2026, 17(6), 695; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060695 (registering DOI) - 12 Jun 2026

Global particleboard production reached almost 123 million m³ in 2024. Such quantities require intensified search for alternative lignocellulosic materials in accordance with the principles of the circular economy. The research aim was to determine the total energy consumption (E_max) and [...] Read more.

Global particleboard production reached almost 123 million m³ in 2024. Such quantities require intensified search for alternative lignocellulosic materials in accordance with the principles of the circular economy. The research aim was to determine the total energy consumption (E_max) and specific cutting work (SCW) when drilling holes in boards made from 100% forest biomass, agricultural biomass, and wood-based post-production residues. The experiments were carried out on a CNC (computerize numerical control) center at a constant speed of 6000 rpm and variable feed rates of 0.2, 2, and 20 mm/min, using conventional particleboard as a reference. The results showed that the feed rate has a dominant influence on energy consumption. As the speed increased, the average SCW value decreased from 22.32 J/mm³ to 6.11 J/mm³. Conventional board required the highest energy input in all variants, and statistical analyses showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) between boards made from alternative raw materials and the reference. This proves that the variability of energy consumption depends mainly on the process parameters and not on the material itself. The research confirms the technological feasibility of using alternative biomass sources in the furniture industry without increasing energy consumption during processing, which promotes the implementation of sustainable development principles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Performance Testing of Wood and Wood-Based Materials)

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20 pages, 11742 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mitigating Effect of Urban Forest Landscape Structure on Urban Heat Islands: Nonlinear Response and Interaction Effect

by Na Wang, Le Li, Shan Jin and Lingling Zhao

Forests 2026, 17(6), 694; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060694 (registering DOI) - 11 Jun 2026

Investigating the spatiotemporal dynamics of urban heat islands and their responses to urban forest (UF) landscape patterns is crucial for mitigating urban thermal stress. However, the nonlinear influence and conditional constraints of UF landscape composition and configuration on the warming effects across varying [...] Read more.

Investigating the spatiotemporal dynamics of urban heat islands and their responses to urban forest (UF) landscape patterns is crucial for mitigating urban thermal stress. However, the nonlinear influence and conditional constraints of UF landscape composition and configuration on the warming effects across varying urbanization gradients remain inadequately understood. By integrating land use/cover data, MODIS-derived land surface temperature (LST), and meteorological datasets, this study employed the XGBoost-SHAP model to quantify the nonlinear and interaction effects of UF landscape patterns on developed and developing urban regions of the Pearl River Delta. The results indicate that (1) spatial clustering patterns of warming varied significantly between the two regions, with substantial seasonal heterogeneities (p < 0.05). Summer exhibited the most intense warming, characterized by more rapid temperature increase in developed areas than in developing regions. (2) Relative to UF landscape metrics, the proportion of impervious surfaces, precipitation, and temperature exerted greater influence on regional warming. Coverage area, fragmentation, and connectivity of UFs emerged as the primary landscape drivers modulating warming. In developed areas, spatial configuration metrics exerted greater influence on LST than compositional metrics. (3) The responses of LST to diverse UF landscape patterns are characterized by nonlinearity and pronounced threshold effects. These landscape thresholds vary by season, revealing critical tipping points for warming suppression; however, this regulatory effect is highly context-dependent. Specifically, under high percentages of impervious surface, the warming-suppression capacity of UFs intensifies with increasing percentage of UF area or core. Our findings highlight the necessity of strategic UF planning and forest fragmentation mitigation for developing effective climate resilience strategies. These results provide a foundation for adaptive planning tailored to specific urbanization stages and the implementation of targeted UF cooling strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forests and Ecosystem Services)

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19 pages, 4028 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aggregate-Associated Soil Nutrients and Enzyme Activities Across Different Forest Types on the Loess Plateau, China

by Jiangxue Han, Jianye Ma, Zhanbin Li, Peng Li, Zhihua Song, Lei Pei and Nibing Gong

Forests 2026, 17(6), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060693 (registering DOI) - 11 Jun 2026

Forest stand composition can regulate soil nutrient cycling by altering aggregate formation, nutrient partitioning and microbial extracellular enzyme activity. Here, we examined pure Pinus tabuliformis forest (YS), pure Quercus acutissima forest (ML) and mixed coniferous–broadleaved forest (HJ) in the Ziwuling forest region of [...] Read more.

Forest stand composition can regulate soil nutrient cycling by altering aggregate formation, nutrient partitioning and microbial extracellular enzyme activity. Here, we examined pure Pinus tabuliformis forest (YS), pure Quercus acutissima forest (ML) and mixed coniferous–broadleaved forest (HJ) in the Ziwuling forest region of the Chinese Loess Plateau. Soil aggregate composition, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and extracellular enzyme activities were quantified across different aggregate-size fractions in the 0–100 cm soil profile. Except for the >5 mm aggregate fraction, the proportions of all other aggregate-size classes followed the order ML > HJ > YS, with ML and HJ showing increases of 19.94%–66.98% and 8.76%–35.01%, respectively, relative to YS. Mixed forest significantly promoted SOC content, with SOC contents 46.9% and 76.1% higher than those in YS and ML, respectively. In contrast, TN content was highest in YS and was 20.3% higher than that in HJ, whereas TP showed only small differences among forest types. SOC and TN were mainly enriched in smaller aggregate fractions, accounting for 49.7%–79.1% and 44.7%–81.3% of their total stocks, respectively, while TP was preferentially associated with larger aggregates, accounting for 54.9%–82.1%. Compared with YS, HJ increased EG, LAP, NAG and ACP activities by 42.2%, 14.9%, 18.0% and 42.5%, respectively. Compared with ML, HJ also showed generally higher extracellular enzyme activities, indicating that mixed forest favored the enhancement of most enzyme-mediated nutrient acquisition processes. Overall, forest stand type regulated extracellular enzyme activity by reshaping soil aggregate composition and aggregate-associated nutrient distribution. These findings help improve our understanding of aggregate-associated nutrient cycling processes in restored forest soils on the Loess Plateau and may provide a reference for future comparative studies on restoration effects among different forest types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Nutrition, Soil Hydrology, and Soil Microbial Diversity and Activity in Forest Ecosystem)

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20 pages, 16044 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hyperspectral Estimation of Chlorophyll Density in Populus pruinosa Incorporating Leaf Water Content

by Bingling Zhang, Jiaqiang Wang, Huixia Li and Chongfa Cai

Forests 2026, 17(6), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060692 (registering DOI) - 11 Jun 2026

Populus pruinosa Schrenk is a keystone species in arid riparian ecosystems, where its physiological status is critical for biodiversity and soil stabilization. In this study, spectral reflectance, leaf chlorophyll density (CHD), and leaf water content (LWC) were measured for Populus pruinosa in the [...] Read more.

Populus pruinosa Schrenk is a keystone species in arid riparian ecosystems, where its physiological status is critical for biodiversity and soil stabilization. In this study, spectral reflectance, leaf chlorophyll density (CHD), and leaf water content (LWC) were measured for Populus pruinosa in the Tarim River headwater region and Awati County, Xinjiang, from July to October 2023. The aim was to estimate CHD using hyperspectral data combined with machine learning and to evaluate the effect of LWC on model accuracy. Raw spectra were preprocessed using Savitzky–Golay (SG) smoothing and continuous wavelet transform (CWT). A two-step feature selection strategy comprising Random Frog and iterative retaining informative variables (IRIV) was applied to extract characteristic bands. Three machine learning models—support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost)—were developed for CHD estimation with and without LWC as an additional input. Incorporating LWC consistently improved the predictive performance of all models. Without LWC, the RF model achieved the best accuracy (training R² = 0.842, test R² = 0.830), whereas after LWC integration, XGBoost reached the optimal performance (training R² = 0.871, test R² = 0.865). SHAP analysis identified the 687 nm wavelength and its interaction with LWC as the most important predictors. These results indicate that combining spectral information with LWC effectively improves the accuracy and stability of CHD estimation for Populus pruinosa, providing a reliable non-destructive approach for assessing forest ecosystem physiological status—a key contribution to the sustainable management of arid riparian forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing-Driven Insights into Forest Growth and Sustainable Resource Management)

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24 pages, 13835 KB

Open AccessArticle

U.S. National Forests Are More Diverse, Denser and Less Invaded than Neighboring Forests

by Kevin M. Potter, Qinfeng Guo, Frank H. Koch, Simone Lim-Hing, Elizabeth R. Matthews and Karun Pandit

Forests 2026, 17(6), 691; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060691 - 10 Jun 2026

National Forests in the United States provide a broad range of goods and services, safeguard biological diversity, and contribute to the resilience of ecosystems, societies, and economies. Given differences in land use history and forest management approaches between National Forests and neighboring ownerships, [...] Read more.

National Forests in the United States provide a broad range of goods and services, safeguard biological diversity, and contribute to the resilience of ecosystems, societies, and economies. Given differences in land use history and forest management approaches between National Forests and neighboring ownerships, we investigated whether they differ across a spectrum of forest health indicators, from biomass stocking to structural diversity to invasion by non-native plants. We used Nationwide Forest Inventory (NFI) plot data from within National Forest System (NFS) lands across the conterminous United States (~20,000 plots) and from within 25 km of NFS lands on other ownerships (~20,000 plots) to quantify differences in forest health indicators. Controlling for environment, geography and forest composition, we found, nationally and regionally, that NFS forest plots had significantly greater tree species and structural diversity and evenness, basal area and biomass per hectare, and seedling density than neighboring plots. They were also less invaded by non-native plants. Such forest health monitoring results are an initial step toward better understanding the status of forest health indicators for NFS forests. This is particularly important because many disturbance factors threaten the sustainability of National Forests and their capacity to provide socioeconomic and ecological benefits. Systematic monitoring of forest health across broad scales increases our understanding of how these disturbances are changing forest conditions and informs land management and policy decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Resources Inventory, Monitoring, and Assessment)

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12 pages, 2525 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Black Locust Restoration Plantations Reduce Noise Exposure at a Mining Area in Greece

by Chariton Sachanidis, Natasa Kiorapostolou, Nikoleta Eleftheriadou, Mariangela N. Fotelli, Nikos Markos, Nikolaos M. Fyllas and Kalliopi Radoglou

Forests 2026, 17(6), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060690 - 10 Jun 2026

Mining activities elevate environmental noise and represent a major disturbance in terrestrial ecosystems. Vegetation belts are often used as mitigation measures. This study evaluates the role of Robinia pseudoacacia L. forest plantations in reducing noise at the lignite complex of western Macedonia, in [...] Read more.

Mining activities elevate environmental noise and represent a major disturbance in terrestrial ecosystems. Vegetation belts are often used as mitigation measures. This study evaluates the role of Robinia pseudoacacia L. forest plantations in reducing noise at the lignite complex of western Macedonia, in Greece. Field measurements of noise level (LAeq) were conducted inside and outside the plantations from spring to autumn during 2020 and 2021. Measurements were taken at five points across four sites differing in their distance from the noise source. Leaf Area Index (LAI) was recorded, and meteorological variables were measured concurrently. Linear mixed-effect models were used to assess the effects of forest presence, distance from source, climatic conditions, and LAI, while accounting for repeated measurements across sampling days and sites. Noise levels were significantly lower within plantations than outside, indicating that restored forest stands can act as buffers to mining noise. The distance of trees from the noise source and atmospheric conditions are also significant drivers of noise levels. These findings highlight the potential of post-mining plantations to provide an additional acoustic regulation service in restored industrial landscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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18 pages, 4038 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Validation of Non-Destructive Wave Propagation Methods for MOE Assessment in Pinus, Eucalyptus and Cedar

by Nathalia Gabriele Franca Dias, Luiz Gustavo de Moraes Rodrigues, Ananias Francisco Dias Júnior, Edgar Vladimiro Mantilla Carrasco and Rejane Costa Alves

Forests 2026, 17(6), 689; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060689 - 10 Jun 2026

Thermal modification (TM) enhances wood properties, but a gap exists in validating non-destructive testing (NDT) methods for thermally modified woods, as chemical and structural alterations may influence wave propagation. This study validated NDT wave propagation methods to estimate static MOE in Eucalyptus sp., [...] Read more.

Thermal modification (TM) enhances wood properties, but a gap exists in validating non-destructive testing (NDT) methods for thermally modified woods, as chemical and structural alterations may influence wave propagation. This study validated NDT wave propagation methods to estimate static MOE in Eucalyptus sp., Pinus sp., and Cedrela sp. woods subjected to TM (140 °C to 240 °C). Impulse excitation (longitudinal and flexural modes) and ultrasonic waves (90 kHz and 500 kHz) were used to obtain dynamic MOE, which was compared with static MOE obtained from three-point bending tests. Results showed high coefficients of determination (R² > 90%) across all species and treatments. Longitudinal excitation presented the highest accuracy (R² up to 97.96%); for ultrasound, 500 kHz was superior to 90 kHz. Control conditions and 240 °C resulted in the highest R² values, indicating greater predictability. As a novel contribution, robust quantitative correlations between NDT methods and static MOE were established specifically for thermally modified tropical woods. Validated methods provide reliable tools for industrial quality control and process optimization, enabling rapid non-destructive assessment without material sacrifice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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2 pages, 512 KB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Sirimalle et al. Impact of Long-Term Agroforestry Systems on Carbon Pools and Sequestration in Top and Deep Soil Layers of Semi-Arid Region of Western India. Forests 2025, 16, 946

by Mahesh Sirimalle, Chiranjeev Kumawat, Raimundo Jiménez-Ballesta, Ramu Meena, Kamlesh Kumar Sharma, Abhik Patra, Kiran Kumar Mohapatra, Dharmendra Tripathi and Arvind Kumawat

Forests 2026, 17(6), 688; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060688 - 10 Jun 2026

The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

12 pages, 2478 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Forest Plant Communities and Stand Age on Small Mammal Diversity

by Linda Bjedov, Marko Vucelja, Josip Margaletić, Krešimir Krapinec, Kristijan Tomljanović and Martina Temunović

Forests 2026, 17(6), 687; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060687 - 9 Jun 2026

Forests are among the most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems, in which small mammals play an important ecological role. Their presence is influenced by various habitat parameters, including vegetation structure, microclimate, food resources, and human-driven forest management practices. The aim of our study was to [...] Read more.

Forests are among the most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems, in which small mammals play an important ecological role. Their presence is influenced by various habitat parameters, including vegetation structure, microclimate, food resources, and human-driven forest management practices. The aim of our study was to assess rodent diversity across different forests, with a particular focus on forest stand age and forest plant communities. For this purpose, we analyzed 17 years of forest rodent monitoring data across five forest plant communities. This study represents the first long-term monitoring results of small mammals in managed forests of continental Croatia. Trapping was conducted as part of routine rodent monitoring in state-owned forests, incorporating data collected from various research projects. The results showed that lowland forests, particularly floodplain oak forests, exhibited higher biodiversity compared to other forest plant communities. In addition, younger stands exhibited higher species richness than older stands. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) indicated that Microtus species were associated with lowland forests and younger stands. Overall, the findings demonstrate that both forest plant communities and stand age play important roles in shaping rodent diversity in continental Croatian forests. The obtained data provide a basis for optimizing forest management practices in continental forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Forest Structure Management on Species Richness and Diversity)

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16 pages, 1808 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Microplastics on Soil Microbial Activity, Biomass, and Microbial Community Structure in Three Types of Temperate Forest

by Beata Klimek, Maciej Choczyński and Maria Niklińska

Forests 2026, 17(6), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060686 - 9 Jun 2026

Microplastic pollution is a problem of global concern, but its effects on forest soils are largely overlooked. This study is based on a laboratory experiment where the effects of soil-added polyethylene microplastic particles (MP-) of two sizes (60 μm and 140 μm) (Cospheric [...] Read more.

Microplastic pollution is a problem of global concern, but its effects on forest soils are largely overlooked. This study is based on a laboratory experiment where the effects of soil-added polyethylene microplastic particles (MP-) of two sizes (60 μm and 140 μm) (Cospheric LLC, USA) were measured to examine their effects on three types of temperate forest: dry pine forest, beech-dominated forest, and ash-dominated riparian forest that differ greatly in several physicochemical and biological soil properties. The addition of MP- did not significantly alter the respiration rate of any of the forest soils studied (p = 0.6303), as shown by ANOVA. Soil microbial biomass, as measured by the phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) method, decreased under 60 µm MP treatment but not under 140 µm MP treatment (p = 0.0094). MP- did affect microbial community structure, especially increasing the proportion of bacteria in the community under 60 µm MP treatment (p = 0.0023). MP- affected the PLFA pattern, as shown by PERMANOVA analysis along with NMDS ordination; the effect was similar in the three studied forest types. As shown by SIMPER analysis, there was a relative decrease in fatty acid 16:1ω7 and a simultaneous increase in 16:0 and 18:0 under both MP treatments. This may potentially serve as an indication of MP pollution in temperate forest soils. Our results suggest that forest soil bacteria, as a group, may benefit from MPs at the expense of fungi, which provides a new perspective on how soil microorganisms interact under globally common MP pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Soil Fauna and Microbial Communities in Forests)

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16 pages, 1393 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustained Control of the Pine Wilt Disease Vector Monochamus alternatus in Pinus thunbergii Forests Depends on Residual Efficacy, Not Initial Knockdown

by Yu Liu, Yanzhuo Liu, Qihong Ma, Haiyan Zhao and Bin Zhang

Forests 2026, 17(6), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060685 - 9 Jun 2026

Pine wilt disease control often depends on reducing adult beetle activity, but how aerial spraying performs under operational forest management conditions remains poorly understood. We evaluated a 2022 operational aerial spray program in Pinus thunbergii stands in Shandong, China, by combining droplet deposition [...] Read more.

Pine wilt disease control often depends on reducing adult beetle activity, but how aerial spraying performs under operational forest management conditions remains poorly understood. We evaluated a 2022 operational aerial spray program in Pinus thunbergii stands in Shandong, China, by combining droplet deposition measurements, branch-feeding bioassays to assess acute and residual toxicity with Monochamus alternatus, and seasonal trap monitoring of both M. alternatus and Arhopalus rusticus, a relevant co-occurring cerambycid species. Spray cards showed that insecticide reached the stand in both spray rounds, although vertical differences between upper and lower strata were stronger during the second application. Branches collected immediately after spraying caused rapid mortality of M. alternatus, and both strata reached complete mortality within 72 h of exposure. In contrast, branches collected one month later caused little additional mortality beyond control levels, indicating that biologically effective exposure declined quickly and provided an insufficient window of protection relative to the full period of adult beetle activity. Trap data matched this pattern. After the first spray, M. alternatus captures dropped sharply during the immediate post-spray period but rebounded before the second spray. A. rusticus showed a similar short-term response, but its seasonal activity pattern differed from that of M. alternatus. Overall, the main limitation of the spray program was not weak initial toxicity, but the short duration of effective control relative to beetle activity in the field. This study shows that better aerial control of pine wilt vectors will depend on matching spray timing and residual persistence with local beetle phenology to improve the design and timing of aerial control programs in pine wilt management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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20 pages, 12279 KB

Open AccessArticle

Global Warming Drives Adaptive Distribution Dynamics and Habitat Fragmentation of Castanea seguinii in China

by Wenjun Ma and Huayong Zhang

Forests 2026, 17(6), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060684 - 8 Jun 2026

Castanea seguinii Dode is ecologically and economically significant in China, and its potential as a carbon sink and ability to adapt to varying climates have garnered considerable interest. In light of global warming, the geographical distribution of Castanea seguinii is experiencing notable changes. [...] Read more.

Castanea seguinii Dode is ecologically and economically significant in China, and its potential as a carbon sink and ability to adapt to varying climates have garnered considerable interest. In light of global warming, the geographical distribution of Castanea seguinii is experiencing notable changes. This study employs the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model to forecast both present and future potential habitats conducive to the survival of Castanea seguinii across four emission scenarios (SSP126, SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585) and utilizes Fragstats 4.2 to analyze fragmentation in its most suitable regions. Findings reveal that current habitats that support adaptation are chiefly located in southern China, covering around 12.7% of the total land area of the country. Key factors affecting this distribution are precipitation levels during the driest month, average temperatures recorded in the driest quarter, precipitation rates in the wettest quarter, isothermality, and elevation, with climate-related variables exerting the greatest influence. As carbon emissions vary, a general trend of habitat contraction is observed for Castanea seguinii, especially in regions that are highly adaptive. The populations of Castanea seguinii are shifting northwestward into areas at higher latitudes and altitudes. This upward movement reflects pronounced nonlinear traits as the intensity of carbon emissions changes. An increase in carbon emissions leads to greater fragmentation in regions that are most adaptable, with the lowest and low fragmentation levels falling to a minimum by 2090 under the SSP585 scenario. The reduction in highly adaptive habitats will contribute to increasing fragmentation. These results offer vital scientific insights for the conservation and management of Castanea seguinii forest resources amid climate change and the pursuit of carbon neutrality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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15 pages, 7026 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dendroanatomy and Seasonal Hydroclimatic Responses of Long-Lived Pinus jeffreyi and P. ponderosa in the Sierra Nevada, Western USA

by Alexis D. Rodriguez, Emanuele Ziaco, David M. Meko and Franco Biondi

Forests 2026, 17(6), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060683 - 8 Jun 2026

Because wood anatomical traits and tree-ring features vary with species and climatic regime, cellular-scale measurements complement ring-width chronologies and help with understanding how forests may respond to future environmental change. We developed anatomical chronologies spanning the 1900–2019 period from multi-century old yellow pines [...] Read more.

Because wood anatomical traits and tree-ring features vary with species and climatic regime, cellular-scale measurements complement ring-width chronologies and help with understanding how forests may respond to future environmental change. We developed anatomical chronologies spanning the 1900–2019 period from multi-century old yellow pines (Pinus jeffreyi Balf. and P. ponderosa P & C Laws.) at four sites surrounding the Tahoe Basin of the Sierra Nevada, at the border between Nevada and California, USA. Measurements of earlywood and latewood traits included lumen area, lumen length, lumen width, wall length, wall-to-lumen length ratio, and conductive area. Climate sensitivity was estimated by bootstrapped response functions with precipitation and temperature (monthly and seasonal) from the Global Historical Climate Network interpolated to the site locations. Moisture emerged as the primary control on anatomical trait expression, as significant coefficients involved precipitation rather than temperature. Earlywood lumen size and conductive capacity were associated with late winter through spring moisture, while cellular wall characteristics were connected with conditions during the growing season. Overall, our study provided new insights into the potential impacts of climatic changes on woody species of remarkable size and longevity in mountain forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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23 pages, 3622 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Delayed Mortality of Fire-Damaged Pines in Korea

by Jeong-Hyeon Bae, Ji-Hyun Kim, Yu-Gyeong Jung and Sanghoon Chung

Forests 2026, 17(6), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060682 - 6 Jun 2026

This study aimed to develop and compare prognostic models (logistic regression, Cox proportional hazards, and random forest) to assess delayed mortality in pine (Pinus densiflora) following fires in Korea. Data from a 72-month monitoring of 734 trees across four fire areas [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop and compare prognostic models (logistic regression, Cox proportional hazards, and random forest) to assess delayed mortality in pine (Pinus densiflora) following fires in Korea. Data from a 72-month monitoring of 734 trees across four fire areas were used, accounting for 19 variables: tree size, fire severity, multispectral indices, topography, and bioclimatic variables. Key predictors of mortality included diameter at breast height (DBH), bark scorch index (BSI), delta normalized burn ratio (dNBR), slope, topographic wetness index (TWI), precipitation of the warmest quarter, temperature seasonality and isothermality. The key results indicate that the random forest model was the most effective (AUC = 0.924; sensitivity = 0.892) in identifying trees at high risk of mortality. These results suggest that nonlinear approaches are effective for predicting delayed mortality in fire-damaged pines and can support rapid decision-making in post-fire forest management and restoration under increasing wildfire risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wildfire and Forest Resistance and Resilience)

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14 pages, 3358 KB

Open AccessArticle

Field-Based Climate Resolution Reveals Seasonal Drivers of Essential Oil Productivity and Antioxidant Functionality in Melaleuca bracteata: Implications for Harvest Optimisation

by Yan Huang, Liuyan Zhang, Qiyan Huang, Jialang Wei, Xiu Chen, Shuhan Guo, Xiongjun Liu and Xiaonan Zhang

Forests 2026, 17(6), 681; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060681 - 5 Jun 2026

Essential oils from aromatic plants are gaining traction as naturally derived preservative and antioxidant ingredients, yet the quantitative relationships between field climate conditions and both oil yield and food relevant bioactivity remain poorly characterised. Here, we characterised the leaf essential oil of Melaleuca [...] Read more.

Essential oils from aromatic plants are gaining traction as naturally derived preservative and antioxidant ingredients, yet the quantitative relationships between field climate conditions and both oil yield and food relevant bioactivity remain poorly characterised. Here, we characterised the leaf essential oil of Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. “Revolution Gold” across a complete annual cycle using a fixed plant, multiscale spatio temporal sampling framework. Leaf samples were collected at four seasonal time points (March, June, September, and December) and four diurnal time points (06:00, 12:00, 16:00, and 21:00) from a single field individual in Meizhou, Guangdong, China. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) profiling identified 51 volatile constituents, with methyl eugenol dominating the composition (up to 93.67% in summer). Oil yield peaked in summer (2.43 mL kg⁻¹ dry weight) and was lowest in spring (1.28 mL kg⁻¹ dry weight). DPPH radical scavenging and ABTS radical cation decolorisation assays revealed that antioxidant activity was highest in summer harvested oils, with IC₅₀ values of 7.68 mg mL⁻¹ (DPPH) and 8.85 mg mL⁻¹ (ABTS), consistent with peak methyl eugenol accumulation. Permutation-based multiple regression (999 permutations; R² = 0.947) identified seasonal precipitation as the strongest positive predictor of oil yield (β = 11.22, p < 0.05), while temperature exerted a significant negative influence (β = −11.21, p < 0.05). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) confirmed highly significant seasonal clustering of compositional profiles (F = 15.258, p = 0.001) against negligible diurnal structuring (F = 0.178, p =0.991). Redundancy analysis (RDA) attributed 71.03% of total compositional variance to the climatic predictor set. Pearson correlation analysis established significant positive associations between methyl eugenol content and antioxidant capacity (r > 0.80, p < 0.05). These findings provide an integrated, climate resolved basis for harvest timing optimisation of M. bracteata and identify summer as the strategically optimal harvest window for yield and bioactive functionality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Antioxidant Potential and Phenolic Diversity of Forest-Derived Plants)

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21 pages, 4993 KB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Tree-Level Stem Volume and Biomass Using Handheld LiDAR: Impact of Tree Height Uncertainty in a Mature Sitka Spruce Plantation

by Luke Dowd and Brian Tobin

Forests 2026, 17(6), 680; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060680 - 5 Jun 2026

Mobile laser scanning (MLS) enables rapid, high-resolution measurement of forest structure, yet its reliability for estimating stem volume and aboveground biomass (AGB) in dense plantations and its sensitivity to tree height uncertainty remain insufficiently quantified. This study evaluates handheld MLS for tree-level stem [...] Read more.

Mobile laser scanning (MLS) enables rapid, high-resolution measurement of forest structure, yet its reliability for estimating stem volume and aboveground biomass (AGB) in dense plantations and its sensitivity to tree height uncertainty remain insufficiently quantified. This study evaluates handheld MLS for tree-level stem volume and AGB estimation in a mature Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) plantation in Ireland, using destructive sampling (n = 12) as a reference. MLS-derived diameter measurements were used to reconstruct stem profiles, with merchantable volume calculated by frustum integration to a 7 cm top-end diameter. The central objective was to quantify how uncertainty in tree height propagates through MLS-derived stem reconstruction and affects volume and AGB estimates. On average, 68.2% of merchantable stem volume was directly measured before upper-stem reconstruction. Under ideal validation conditions using true felled-stem height, MLS-derived merchantable volume and total AGB were estimated with RMSE values of 5.6% and 10.9%, respectively. Across practical height-input scenarios, error increased moderately, indicating that direct measurement of the lower stem constrained the propagation of height uncertainty. Compared with the nationally applied spruce allometric benchmark, the MLS-based workflow showed lower sensitivity to height-input uncertainty under the conditions evaluated. These findings demonstrate the potential of handheld MLS as a tree-level validation and calibration tool for measurement-based biomass assessment while highlighting the need for broader testing across stand types, species and operational plot-level workflows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing-Based Methods for Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation—2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 5261 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Approaches to Tracking Southern Pine Health: Forecasting Southern Pine Beetle Outbreaks Using Pheromone-Baited Traps, Detection Surveys and a Hazard Rating Model

by Christopher S. Asaro, John T. Nowak, Carissa Aoki, Matthew P. Ayres, William B. Monahan, Frank J. Krist, Jr., Steven P. Norman, James R. Meeker, Michael Torbett and Anthony Elledge

Forests 2026, 17(6), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060679 - 4 Jun 2026

The southern pine beetle (SPB) is a serious pest of pine forests from Central America to the eastern United States, with a recent range expansion into the northeastern United States. Efforts to detect and monitor SPB activity began in 1960 as part of [...] Read more.

The southern pine beetle (SPB) is a serious pest of pine forests from Central America to the eastern United States, with a recent range expansion into the northeastern United States. Efforts to detect and monitor SPB activity began in 1960 as part of an overall integrated pest management system to limit its impact to southern pine forests. The ubiquity of SPB’s pine hosts in the southern United States, in the form of plantations and natural mixed stands, along with the regular occurrence of SPB outbreaks over a vast region, makes SPB a leading driver of overall forest health across this region. We review the past and current methodology for collecting SPB-related pine mortality and outbreak data using aerial and ground survey techniques and remote sensing via satellite imagery. We show how historical and ongoing measurements of SPB abundance, from pheromone-baited traps and aerial surveys, are used to forecast near-term probabilities of outbreaks with a statistical model (actualized through a public URL) that captures the natural tendency of SPB populations to be very high or very low. Insect forecasts can also be combined with maps of the host distributions to generate predictions of short-term regional risks and longer-term tree mortality forecasts via the US Forest Service’ National Insect and Disease Risk Map (NIDRM). Because the measurements of insect abundance and impact outcomes have become part of continuing forest management operations, statistical models can continue to be improved and there is self-reinforcing feedback between models and management. Improved understanding and monitoring of prominent insect pests that impact abundant tree species is a pathway to managing forest health more broadly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovating Indicators: New Approaches for Tracking Forest Health Status and Trends in a Rapidly Changing World)

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27 pages, 6656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Realizing Forest Ecosystem Service Value Through Natural Resource Asset Portfolio Supply: A Multi-Case Study from China

by Huifan Lai, Qin Liang and Yong Sun

Forests 2026, 17(6), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17060678 - 4 Jun 2026

Addressing the issues of forest resource fragmentation and difficulties in value realization caused by traditional development models, China has explored the Natural Resource Asset Portfolio Supply Model (PSM), offering a new pathway for realizing Forest Ecosystem Service Value (FESV). However, existing studies are [...] Read more.

Addressing the issues of forest resource fragmentation and difficulties in value realization caused by traditional development models, China has explored the Natural Resource Asset Portfolio Supply Model (PSM), offering a new pathway for realizing Forest Ecosystem Service Value (FESV). However, existing studies are mostly descriptive case summaries and have yet to reveal the process mechanisms through which PSM drives forest value enhancement. Accordingly, this study selects five typical cases released by the Ministry of Natural Resources and employs multi-case research and grounded theory to deeply analyze their evolutionary pathways. The findings show that PSM promotes forest value enhancement through a gradient evolutionary pathway of “asset aggregation, functional coupling, and property rights conversion”. Asset aggregation addresses fragmentation through resource integration; functional coupling generates synergies through element combination; and property rights conversion transforms ecosystem services into transferable value carriers through institutional innovation, completing the transition from physical assets to capital. The study further identifies two roles of forest resources in composite asset packages, namely dominant resources and background resources, along with their distinct value enhancement pathways, and reveals how institutional innovation in property rights releases ecosystem services from physical constraints into transferable value carriers. The gradient evolutionary pathway constructed in this paper provides a novel process explanation for theoretical research on ecosystem service value realization, and its cross-context applicability offers a theoretical reference for natural resource management in similar global contexts. Practically, it provides managers with actionable value enhancement pathway choices and institutional design references, while also offering a viable analytical tool for policy optimization of PSM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Roles and Functions of Forests in Sustainable Rural Development)

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