Forests

20 pages, 6090 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Post-Industrial Heap Conditions on Nutrient Accumulation in Silver Birch (Betula pendula Roth) Biomass

by Beata Rustowska, Jerzy Jonczak, Wojciech Kwasowski and Marcin Ollik

Forests 2026, 17(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010040 (registering DOI) - 27 Dec 2025

Post-industrial heaps are a major environmental problem. They require remediation and reclamation, in which natural succession plays a key role in ecosystem development. This study aimed to assess the effect of heaps formed from materials of different origins on the nutrient content of [...] Read more.

Post-industrial heaps are a major environmental problem. They require remediation and reclamation, in which natural succession plays a key role in ecosystem development. This study aimed to assess the effect of heaps formed from materials of different origins on the nutrient content of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), a pioneer species in this process. We analyzed nutrient contents in biomass fractions (fine and coarse roots, stemwood, bark, coarse and fine branches, leaves) and in soils sampled from 0 to 10, 10 to 20, 20 to 40, and 40 to 80 cm. Basic soil properties and the contents of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in both soil and biomass were determined. The soils were poor in total organic carbon and differed in pH, texture, and nutrient status. Leaves and roots contained the highest nutrient contents, whereas stemwood contained the lowest. Statistical analyses revealed significant differences in all studied elements between heaps. Among macronutrients, N, P, and Mg were most abundant, followed by K, Ca, and S. Among micronutrients, Mn dominated, followed by Fe, Zn, and Cu. Findings underscore that silver birch growing on contaminated post-industrial heaps cannot be considered a hyperaccumulator of trace elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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22 pages, 6310 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Spatial Patterns and Associations Across Different Growth Stages in Quercus Forests

by Zhenghua Lian, Yingshan Jin, Xuefan Hu, Yanhong Liu, Fang Li, Fang Liang, Yuerong Wang, Zuzheng Li, Jiahui Wang and Hongfei Chen

Forests 2026, 17(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010039 (registering DOI) - 27 Dec 2025

Abstract

Understanding the ecological processes that shape spatial patterns across different growth stages is crucial for revealing the mechanisms of species coexistence and community dynamics. This study investigates the spatial patterns and associations between the regeneration layer and the overstory layer in Quercus variabilis [...] Read more.

Understanding the ecological processes that shape spatial patterns across different growth stages is crucial for revealing the mechanisms of species coexistence and community dynamics. This study investigates the spatial patterns and associations between the regeneration layer and the overstory layer in Quercus variabilis forests in northern China. Using spatial point pattern analysis, we analyzed the distribution of 2761 seedlings and 449 adult trees across twelve 20 × 20 m plots. Our results revealed a consistent pattern where seedlings exhibited significant spatial aggregation, best fitted by a simple Thomas process with an average cluster radius of 3.89 m calculated across all plots, while adult trees displayed a complete spatial random distribution. A marked reduction in local density from seedlings to adults, indicated by a self-thinning index greater than 1 in most plots, provided evidence for density-dependent mortality during stand development. However, bivariate analysis detected no significant spatial association or mark correlation between adult trees and seedlings in most plots, suggesting limited interaction between these layers after initial seedling establishment. These findings demonstrate a clear transition from clustered regeneration to randomly distributed adults, which is consistent with the potential roles of dispersal limitation, habitat filtering and competition processes, with implications for the management and conservation of temperate Quercus forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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18 pages, 3509 KB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Plant Diversity and Community Structure of Different Degraded Habitats Under Restoration in the Niba Mountain Corridor of Giant Panda National Park

by Qian Shen, Dongling Zhang, Ming Tang, Ping Li, Jingyi Liu, Yuzhou Jiang, Mingxia Fu, Zhangmin Chen, Xilin Xiong, Xinqiang Song and Biao Yang

Forests 2026, 17(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010038 (registering DOI) - 27 Dec 2025

Abstract

Habitat degradation and fragmentation pose severe threats to biodiversity in protected areas, including the Giant Panda National Park (GPNP). Effective restoration strategies are urgently needed to enhance habitat connectivity and support the recovery of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca David, 1869) populations. This [...] Read more.

Habitat degradation and fragmentation pose severe threats to biodiversity in protected areas, including the Giant Panda National Park (GPNP). Effective restoration strategies are urgently needed to enhance habitat connectivity and support the recovery of giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca David, 1869) populations. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of targeted artificial restoration measures on plant diversity and community structure in four typical degraded habitats within the Niba Mountain Corridor of the GPNP. Over a three-year monitoring period, vegetation surveys and infrared camera trapping were conducted across pure plantations and secondary forests, with/without bamboo, using suitable habitats as controls. The results showed that: (1) Artificial restoration significantly increased shrub layer species richness and Shannon–Wiener index in most degraded habitats, approaching control levels after two years, while herb layer diversity initially increased then declined due to shrub competition. (2) Sorensen’s similarity between degraded and suitable habitats increased over time, rising from 0.08–0.42 to 0.46–0.67 for the shrub layer and from 0.09–0.22 to 0.30–0.40 for the herb layer. (3) Key species showing high variability during restoration included Litsea pungens Hemsl., Actinidia spp., Salix spp., Rubus spp., Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser, Carex spp., and Elatostema involucratum Franch. et Savat. (4) Bamboo regeneration was enhanced with peak live shoots in 2024. (5) Increased activity of medium-to-large mammals, notably the tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872), may indicate initial stages of functional recovery for resources in the restored habitats. The results confirmed that differentiated artificial restoration can effectively promote species diversity recovery and habitat convergence, providing a scientific basis for optimizing GPNP corridor management and improving population connectivity for giant pandas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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22 pages, 26240 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mining Remnants Hindering Forest Management Detected Using Digital Elevation Model from the National Airborne Laser Scanning Database (Kłobuck Forest District and Its Environs, Southern Poland)

by Ewa E. Kurowska, Krzysztof Grzyb and Andrzej Czerniak

Forests 2026, 17(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010037 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Forested areas in Poland comprise numerous post-mining sites that hinder effective forest management. Such mining remnants may pose a threat to humans, animals, and operating forest machines. This study aimed to determine the feasibility of inventorying such man-made landforms as mining waste heaps, [...] Read more.

Forested areas in Poland comprise numerous post-mining sites that hinder effective forest management. Such mining remnants may pose a threat to humans, animals, and operating forest machines. This study aimed to determine the feasibility of inventorying such man-made landforms as mining waste heaps, excavations, remnants of shallow shafts, adits, etc., using the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) based on Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data provided by the national agency (the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography—HOGC) as open data. The DEM, when combined with other cartographic materials using GIS, accurately reflects the anthropogenic transformation evident in the topography. This paper presents the results of inventorying remnants of iron ore mining in the present-day forested area located between Krzepice, Kłobuck, and Częstochowa in southern Poland. The identification and inventory of post-mining landforms, mainly mounds resulting from shallow shaft mining operations, were supplemented by their digitization, automatically providing information on parameters such as perimeter (ranged in most cases from 24.3 to 159 m), surface area (46.9 to 1656 m²), length and width (7.8 to 59.2 m). The heights of the investigated structures were also read from the DEM, ranging from 0.3 to 4.1 m. Much larger structures were also identified, but they occurred accidentally (up to 23.5 m in height). In this manner, approximately 823 morphological forms were characterized, resulting in a database. Test fieldwork was then conducted to verify the DEM readings. It was proposed to calculate deformation indexes (Id [%]) for forested areas and apply them when estimating the forest management hindrance index used by the State Forests. The studied forest compartments managed by State Forests were characterized by an Id value from 0.1 to 55.5%. This type of measure provides a helpful tool in planning forestry operations in areas with diverse topography, including those transformed by mining activities. The actual environmental impact is highlighted. Forest management practices in the study area must take into consideration, in particular, topography, as well as geology and hydrology. Studies have shown that the DEM based on the ALS data is sufficiently accurate to detect even minor post-mining deformations (which may be important, in particular, in inaccessible areas). The recorded parameters can be considered when planning management, protection interventions, or reclamation activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Forest Engineering Technologies and Sustainable Practices)

22 pages, 4240 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Framework for Individual Tree Segmentation in Complex Urban Forests from Terrestrial LiDAR Point Clouds

by Ming Liu, Yanwen Zhang, Guowei Zhang, Peiwen Luo, Qian Zhang and Kankan Shang

Forests 2026, 17(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010036 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Accurate individual tree inventories are fundamental to urban forest management, yet automated delineation from Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) data remains a challenge. This study presents a two-stage hybrid framework that combines a domain-adapted deep learning model (TreeLA-Net) with a geometric algorithm (SEGR) to [...] Read more.

Accurate individual tree inventories are fundamental to urban forest management, yet automated delineation from Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) data remains a challenge. This study presents a two-stage hybrid framework that combines a domain-adapted deep learning model (TreeLA-Net) with a geometric algorithm (SEGR) to solve this issue, aiming to reduce the need for instance-level annotations. TreeLA-Net first generates semantic labels, outperforming the baseline RandLA-Net by 2.5 percentage points in overall accuracy. Subsequently, SEGR leverages these priors to achieve a tree detection rate of 92.0% on our primary study site. To assess the framework’s transferability, an external validation was conducted on a new, independent site, where the model, without retraining, yielded a recall of 81.5%. These findings suggest that the framework is not strictly overfitted and possesses generalization capabilities. The proposed approach is offered as a potential tool to support data-driven urban forest management, particularly for automated tree mapping and inventory. We hope that this study may contribute to ongoing efforts to develop robust methods for characterizing complex urban forest structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Classification of Forest Tree Species Using Remote Sensing Technologies: Latest Advances and Improvements)

16 pages, 1148 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil and Climate Controls on the Economic Value of Forest Carbon in Northeast China

by Jingwei Song, Song Lin, Haisen Bao and Youjun He

Forests 2026, 17(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010035 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Broad-scale assessments often track forest productivity, yet they rarely quantify how soil conditions determine whether these gains persist as long-lived carbon and generate measurable economic value. This study focused on Northeast China, where forests include boreal coniferous stands dominated by Dahurian larch, temperate [...] Read more.

Broad-scale assessments often track forest productivity, yet they rarely quantify how soil conditions determine whether these gains persist as long-lived carbon and generate measurable economic value. This study focused on Northeast China, where forests include boreal coniferous stands dominated by Dahurian larch, temperate conifer–broadleaf mixed forests with Korean pine, and temperate deciduous broadleaf forests dominated by Mongolian oak. We combined GLASS net primary productivity and ESA CCI Land Cover to delineate forest pixels, used 2000 to 2005 as the baseline, and converted productivity anomalies into pixel level carbon economic value using a consistent pricing rule. Forest NPP increased significantly during 2000 to 2018 (slope = 1.57, p = 0.019), and carbon economic value also increased over time during 2006 to 2018 (slope = 2.24, p = 0.002), with the highest values in core mountain forests and lower values in the western forest–grassland transition zone. Correlation analysis, explainable random forests, and variance partitioning characterized spatial and temporal dynamics from 2000 to 2018 and identified environmental controls. Carbon value increased over time and showed marked spatial heterogeneity that mirrored productivity patterns in core mountain forests. Climate was the dominant predictor of value, while higher soil pH and clay content were negatively associated with value. The random forest model explained about 70% of the variance in carbon value (R² = 0.695), and variance partitioning indicated substantial unique and joint contributions from climate and soil alongside secondary topographic effects. The automatable framework enables periodic updates with new satellite composites, supports ecological compensation zoning, and informs soil-oriented interventions that enhance the monetized value of forest carbon sinks in data-limited regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

31 pages, 9702 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Multi-Scale Carbon Sink Capability in Urban Green Spaces Using Integrated LiDAR

by Yuhao Fang, Wenling Song, Yilun Cao, Shuge Su and Yuning Cheng

Forests 2026, 17(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010034 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Urban green spaces play a vital role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and storage. However, accurately quantifying their carbon sink capability remains challenging due to complex vertical structures and spatial heterogeneity. This study proposes a comprehensive inventory framework integrating multi-source LiDAR [...] Read more.

Urban green spaces play a vital role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and storage. However, accurately quantifying their carbon sink capability remains challenging due to complex vertical structures and spatial heterogeneity. This study proposes a comprehensive inventory framework integrating multi-source LiDAR (UAV and Backpack) with a phenology-based complementary strategy to quantify carbon dynamics across three nested scales: green space types, plant communities, and species. Two key indicators—Carbon Sequestration Efficiency (CSE) and Carbon Density (CD)—were used to evaluate both the dynamic and static aspects of carbon sink function. The results reveal a clear asynchrony between CSE and CD across scales. No single plant type performed best in both dimensions, indicating a trade-off between growth efficiency and biomass accumulation. Hierarchical clustering identified distinct plant groups with divergent carbon sink strategies, supporting nuanced vegetation selection. The dual-indicator and dual-platform approach proposed in this study advances our existing understanding of the carbon sequestration capacity of urban green spaces and provides a robust methodological foundation for data-driven low-carbon urban ecological planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Functions of Urban Green Spaces)

11 pages, 1597 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Soil Moisture in the Infection of Quercus suber L. Roots by Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands and Pythium spiculum Paul

by Mario González, María Socorro Serrano, María Ángeles Romero and María Esperanza Sánchez

Forests 2026, 17(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010033 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

The survival of Quercus species in the Mediterranean region is challenged by root diseases caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands and Pythium spiculum Paul, as well as by drought. This study aimed to examine the interaction between both pathogens under varying soil moisture levels. [...] Read more.

The survival of Quercus species in the Mediterranean region is challenged by root diseases caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands and Pythium spiculum Paul, as well as by drought. This study aimed to examine the interaction between both pathogens under varying soil moisture levels. Seedlings were inoculated with P. cinnamomi, Py. spiculum, or both, and exposed to soil moisture conditions ranging from saturation to drought. Results showed that P. cinnamomi caused high levels of root necrosis in saturated-to-moderately dry soils, but it was unable to cause infection under drought conditions. Conversely, Py. spiculum infected roots under drought but not under saturation conditions and was less virulent in wet soils compared to P. cinnamomi. In seedlings inoculated with both pathogens, symptoms were similar to those induced by P. cinnamomi alone, without any synergistic effect. This study highlights that P. cinnamomi and Py. spiculum infect oak roots across a range of soil moistures, with P. cinnamomi being the predominant pathogen in wet-to-moderately dry soils, and Py. spiculum being the predominant pathogen in droughted soils. Under current and projected future water deficit conditions, oak woodlands infected by both pathogens face a significant threat to their survival. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Phytophthora Threats to Forest Ecosystems: Pathogen Ecology, Host Resistance, and Sustainable Management)

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33 pages, 95501 KB

Open AccessArticle

IntegratingDeep Learning with Urban Greenery: Analyzing Visual Perception Through Street View Images in Tianjin, China

by Yu-Xiang Sun, Yuan-Yuan Sun, Qian Ji, Zi-Tong Zhao, Yan-Kui Yuan, Sheng-Bei Zhou and Feng-Liang Tang

Forests 2026, 17(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010032 (registering DOI) - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Rapid urbanization has intensified the demand for street designs that reconcile ecological quality with positive human experiences, particularly in high-density cities such as Tianjin, China. Streets function as key interfaces where ecological processes, social activities and human perception intersect. However, existing research tends [...] Read more.

Rapid urbanization has intensified the demand for street designs that reconcile ecological quality with positive human experiences, particularly in high-density cities such as Tianjin, China. Streets function as key interfaces where ecological processes, social activities and human perception intersect. However, existing research tends to emphasize the amount of greenery while overlooking its structural characteristics, to treat perception as a psychological response decoupled from spatial context, and to make limited use of fine-grained functional data to examine how ecology and perception interact. This study develops an integrated analytical framework that combines the DeepLabV3+ model to extract the Urban Street Greenery Generalized Structure (USGGS) from Baidu Street View imagery with a vision transformer model trained on the Place Pulse 2.0 dataset to derive multidimensional perceptual metrics. Functional diversity is represented using point-of-interest (POI) data, and an enhanced Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) model is employed to explore associations among greenery structure, perceived qualities and functional characteristics. Analyses of six urban districts in Tianjin indicate that ecological and perceived street qualities are closely related to the degree of coupling between vegetation structure and functional diversity. Streets characterized by multi-layered greenery and diverse, active functions tend to exhibit higher perceived aesthetics, safety and vitality, whereas streets with single-layer vegetation or functionally monotonous environments generally do not perform as well. Functional patterns appear to mediate relationships between greening and perception by shaping how ecological form is experienced through everyday social activities. Overall, the results suggest that closer coordination between ecological design and functional organization is important for fostering urban streets that combine environmental resilience with strong perceived appeal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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27 pages, 6957 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on AGV Path Optimization Based on an Improved A* and DWA Fusion Algorithm

by Kun Wang, Shuai Li, Mingyang Zhang and Jun Zhang

Forests 2026, 17(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010031 - 26 Dec 2025

Abstract

Forestry environments—such as logging sites, transport trails, and resource monitoring areas—are characterized by rugged terrain and irregularly distributed obstacles, which pose substantial challenges for AGV route planning. This poses challenges for route planning in automated guided vehicles (AGVs) and forestry machinery. To address [...] Read more.

Forestry environments—such as logging sites, transport trails, and resource monitoring areas—are characterized by rugged terrain and irregularly distributed obstacles, which pose substantial challenges for AGV route planning. This poses challenges for route planning in automated guided vehicles (AGVs) and forestry machinery. To address these challenges, this study proposes a hybrid path optimization method that integrates an improved A* algorithm with the Dynamic Window Approach (DWA). At the global planning level, the improved A* incorporates a dynamically weighted heuristic function, a steering-penalty term, and Floyd-based path smoothing to enhance path feasibility and continuity. In terms of local planning, the improved DWA algorithm employs adaptive weight adjustment, risk-perception factors, a sub-goal guidance mechanism, and a non-uniform and adaptive sampling strategy, thereby strengthening obstacle avoidance in dynamic environments. Simulation experiments on two-dimensional grid maps demonstrate that this method reduces path lengths by an average of 6.82%, 8.13%, and 21.78% for 20 × 20, 30 × 30, and 100 × 100 maps, respectively; planning time was reduced by an average of 21.02%, 16.65%, and 9.33%; total steering angle was reduced by an average of 100°, 487.5°, and 587.5°. These results indicate that the proposed hybrid algorithm offers practical technical guidance for intelligent forestry operations in complex natural environments, including timber harvesting, biomass transportation, and precision stand management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harvesting, Processing and Management of Specialty Forest Products and Biomass)

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18 pages, 3019 KB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Commercial Height in Amazonian Forests: Accuracy of Mixed-Effects Regression Versus Random Forest

by Renato Bezerra da Silva Ribeiro, Leonardo Pequeno Reis, Antonio Pedro Fragoso Woycikievicz, Marcello Neiva de Mello, Afonso Henrique Moraes Oliveira, Carlos Tadeu dos Santos Dias and Lucietta Guerreiro Martorano

Forests 2026, 17(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010030 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Accurate estimation of commercial tree height is essential for volumetric predictions in forest management plans, particularly in Amazonian forests with high species diversity. We assessed two predictive approaches for estimating commercial height, using the sum of actual commercial log lengths as the reference [...] Read more.

Accurate estimation of commercial tree height is essential for volumetric predictions in forest management plans, particularly in Amazonian forests with high species diversity. We assessed two predictive approaches for estimating commercial height, using the sum of actual commercial log lengths as the reference metric. The dataset comprised 1745 harvested trees from Annual Production Unit 8 in the Tapajós National Forest. Three commercial volume groups dominated the structural gradient: 46.1% of the trees Group 1 (<6 m³), 36.7% into Group 2 (6–10 m³), and 17.2% into Group 3 (≥10 m³). The Linear Mixed-Effects Model included diameter at breast height (DBH) as a fixed effect and species as a random effect, whereas the Random Forest model used DBH and species as predictors. The mixed-effects model achieved higher accuracy (r = 0.77; RMSE = 2.95 m), while the Random Forest model performed slightly worse (r = 0.73; RMSE = 3.10 m). Species with greater commercial heights exerted a strong influence on both modelling approaches. Principal Component Analysis revealed structural separation among the three volume groups, driven by DBH, commercial height, number of logs, and log volume. The mixed-effects model provided effective framework for predicting commercial height in heterogeneous tropical forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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17 pages, 2157 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Forest Restoration on Reducing Soil and Water Loss in a Bare Catchment of the Purple Soil Region, Southwestern China

by Junxia Yan, Zhenzhao Lan, Jiangkun Zheng, Xinyi Xiang, Xin Chen, Yuhe Chen and Zhaofu Ge

Forests 2026, 17(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010029 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Soil erosion in the purple soil region presents severe challenges with complex driving mechanisms. At the same time, evaluation and prediction of runoff and sediment dynamics are lacking for natural vegetation restoration in bare areas. The Mann–Kendall and Pettitt tests were employed to [...] Read more.

Soil erosion in the purple soil region presents severe challenges with complex driving mechanisms. At the same time, evaluation and prediction of runoff and sediment dynamics are lacking for natural vegetation restoration in bare areas. The Mann–Kendall and Pettitt tests were employed to identify abrupt shift points in runoff and sediment dynamics, utilizing monitoring data from the Suining Soil and Water Conservation Experimental Station over the period from 1984 to 2018. Therefore, the research periods were divided into a baseline period (1984–1992) and an evaluation period (1993–2018). Subsequently, encompassing rainfall, runoff, sediment, topography, soil properties, and vegetation parameters, a Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model was established to quantify the reduction benefits of runoff and sediment during the period of forest restoration. We found that the calibrated WEPP model demonstrated satisfactory performance based on Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficients (NSE > 0.5) and determination coefficients (R² > 0.5) for runoff and sediment simulations. The WEPP model and double-mass curve analysis method revealed that forest restoration reduced runoff and sediment by more than 80%. It is recommended to implement artificial vegetation restoration before reaching the threshold for natural vegetation restoration to achieve soil and water conservation goals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil and Water Conservation in Forestry)

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18 pages, 9639 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phytosociological Factors Determining Forest Management in Forests with Share of Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)

by Monika Konatowska, Paweł Rutkowski, Agnieszka Ramion-Harkawik, Łukasz Nikonowicz, Tomasz Babiak, Arkadiusz Kukliński, Tomasz Kowalczyk and Daniel Lemke

Forests 2026, 17(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010028 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

The distribution of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), similar to other tree species, depends on habitat conditions (climate, soil, and location), which are further affected by forest management. The analysis of forest ecosystems utilizes the [...] Read more.

The distribution of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), similar to other tree species, depends on habitat conditions (climate, soil, and location), which are further affected by forest management. The analysis of forest ecosystems utilizes the link between the knowledge of habitat requirements of forest trees and their share in plant communities described via the phytosociological method. There is a significant knowledge gap in this regard, namely the lack of plant communities with the natural participation of pine and beech. In this context, the aim of this study was to identify the variability of plant communities involving Pinus sylvestris and Fagus sylvatica within its northeastern range. Our research resulted in the identification of two new phytosociological units described as a Fago–Pinetum association and a subassociation within the existing Leucobryo-Pinetum plant community (Leucobryo-Pinetum fagetosum). Leucobyro-Pinetum fagetosum is characterized by the constant presence of beech in the herb and seedling layer or by a share of beech in the shrub and small-tree layer up to 10% cover. Fago–Pinetum is characterized by a greater share of beech in the shrub and small-tree layer (covering 10%–30% area) and by the presence of beech in the lower understory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Management Planning and Decision Support)

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24 pages, 8240 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Constraint and Shortest Path Optimization Method for Individual Urban Street Tree Segmentation from Point Clouds

by Shengbo Yu, Dajun Li, Xiaowei Xie, Zhenyang Hui, Xiaolong Cheng, Faming Huang, Hua Liu and Liping Tu

Forests 2026, 17(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010027 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Street trees are vital components of urban ecosystems, contributing to air purification, microclimate regulation, and visual landscape enhancement. Thus, accurate segmentation of individual trees from point clouds is an essential task for effective urban green space management. However, existing methods often struggle with [...] Read more.

Street trees are vital components of urban ecosystems, contributing to air purification, microclimate regulation, and visual landscape enhancement. Thus, accurate segmentation of individual trees from point clouds is an essential task for effective urban green space management. However, existing methods often struggle with noise, crown overlap, and the complexity of street environments. To address these challenges, this paper introduces a multi-constraint and shortest path optimization method for individual urban street tree segmentation from point clouds. In this paper, object primitives are first generated using multi-constraints based on graph segmentation. Subsequently, trunk points are identified and associated with their corresponding crowns through structural cues. To further improve the robustness of the proposed method under dense and cluttered conditions, the shortest-path optimization and stem-axis distance analysis techniques are proposed to further refine the individual tree extraction results. To evaluate the performance of the proposed method, the WHU-STree benchmark dataset is utilized for testing. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves an average F1-score of 0.768 and coverage of 0.803, outperforming superpoint graph structure single-tree classification (SSSC) and nyström spectral clustering (NSC) methods by 17.4% and 43.0%, respectively. The comparison of visual individual tree segmentation results also indicates that the proposed framework offers a reliable solution for street tree detection in complex urban scenes and holds practical value for advancing smart city ecological management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue LiDAR Remote Sensing for Forestry)

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18 pages, 2938 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Insulation Panels Made of Tree Bark Fibers: Thermal and Fire Performance

by Volha Mialeshka, Grzegorz Kowaluk and Zoltán Pásztory

Forests 2026, 17(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010026 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

The growing demand for sustainable solutions stimulates the building sector to develop environmentally friendly building materials. However, innovative natural-based options used in residential buildings must also comply with safety standards. This study examines the thermal and fire performance of insulation boards produced from [...] Read more.

The growing demand for sustainable solutions stimulates the building sector to develop environmentally friendly building materials. However, innovative natural-based options used in residential buildings must also comply with safety standards. This study examines the thermal and fire performance of insulation boards produced from tree bark fibers of two hardwood species, Tilia spp. (Lime) and Robinia pseudoacacia (Black Locust). The samples were fabricated using a wet process without adhesives and fire retardants, achieving thermal conductivity coefficient values of 0.055–0.057 W/m·K at densities ranging from 218 to 231 kg/m³. Density profiling revealed a characteristic vertical gradient associated with wet processing, while wettability measurements indicated hydrophobic surface behavior. Fire tests showed species-dependent behavior: Black Locust panels exhibited smaller damaged zones and lower maximum temperatures, whereas Lime panels showed deeper thermal degradation. No board ignition was observed, and smoke release remained moderate and consistent. Overall, these findings highlight the potential of bark-based insulation boards as sustainable alternatives in building applications. However, further optimization with larger sample sets and the integration of natural flame retardants is recommended to improve performance and safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Utilization, Preservation, and Maintenance of Wood Materials)

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32 pages, 2029 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Ecological Function to Economic Value: Forest Carbon Sinks and Regional Sustainable Growth in China

by Xin Zhang, Shun Li, Peng Liu and Sanggyun Na

Forests 2026, 17(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010025 - 25 Dec 2025

Abstract

Forest carbon sinks (FCS)—referring specifically to ecosystem-based carbon sequestration provided by forest ecosystems—are being increasingly recognized as a strategic form of natural capital under China’s “dual carbon” goals. While the ecological value of FCS is being translated into economic benefits through carbon markets, [...] Read more.

Forest carbon sinks (FCS)—referring specifically to ecosystem-based carbon sequestration provided by forest ecosystems—are being increasingly recognized as a strategic form of natural capital under China’s “dual carbon” goals. While the ecological value of FCS is being translated into economic benefits through carbon markets, eco-compensation, and green finance, the extent to which ecosystem carbon sinks can continuously drive regional economic growth—and how such effects differ across regions—remains insufficiently understood. Using panel data for 294 Chinese prefecture-level cities from 2010 to 2022, this study employs dynamic panel methods to examine the dynamic, nonlinear, and heterogeneous impacts of ecosystem-based FCS on economic growth. The results show that (1) FCS significantly promote economic growth but follow an inverted U-shaped pattern, indicating diminishing marginal returns; (2) notable regional heterogeneity exists, with the strongest effects in central and western regions, while eastern cities exhibit weaker responses due to structural and spatial constraints; and (3) clear threshold effects are present, suggesting that industrial upgrading, urbanization, and moderate government intervention can amplify the economic contribution of FCS. These findings clarify the mechanism through which FCS transitions from ecological assets to economic capital, providing theoretical and empirical support for sustainable forest management, ecological-industrial integration, and carbon market optimization in the pursuit of carbon neutrality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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11 pages, 1660 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Machining Fluid in the Process of Steam-Treated Pine and Beech Wood Turning on Selected Surface Roughness Parameters

by Marta Majek, Zoya Karatkevich, Peter Vilkovský, Richard Kminiak and Daniel Chuchala

Forests 2026, 17(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010024 - 24 Dec 2025

Abstract

In this study, the influence of different cutting conditions on the quality of the machined surface during the turning process of steam-treated pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) was investigated. The cutting conditions analysed included dry [...] Read more.

In this study, the influence of different cutting conditions on the quality of the machined surface during the turning process of steam-treated pine wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) and beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) was investigated. The cutting conditions analysed included dry turning, turning with compressed air cooling, and turning with oil mist cooling. The turning processes for all analysed cutting conditions were carried out for three different feed per revolution values. The carried out studies allowed the observation of a noticeable increase in the values of the analysed surface roughness parameters (Ra, Rz, Rq, Rt, and Rp) with the increase in feed per revolution for pine and beech wood. In addition, a noticeable decrease in the values of these parameters was observed with the use of compressed air and oil mist (MQL) for pine wood. However, in the case of beech wood, the lowest surface roughness values were observed during dry turning, while the use of MQL leads to increased values of surface roughness, especially at high feeds per revolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machining Properties of Wood and Advances in Wood Cutting)

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17 pages, 2432 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transient Root Plasticity and Persistent Functional Divergence in Pine and Oak Forests in Response to Thinning

by Xuehong Ma, Xinyi Xie, Shuiqiang Yu, Jianhui Xue, Shuxia Weng, Qian Wang, Jian Zhou and Weifeng Wang

Forests 2026, 17(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010023 - 24 Dec 2025

Abstract

The mechanisms through which forest thinning influences the fine root foraging strategies of coexisting tree species in mixed forests remain unclear, limiting our ability to manage mixed forests for long-term productivity. We employed a space-for-time substitution approach in a Qinling pine-oak forest, in [...] Read more.

The mechanisms through which forest thinning influences the fine root foraging strategies of coexisting tree species in mixed forests remain unclear, limiting our ability to manage mixed forests for long-term productivity. We employed a space-for-time substitution approach in a Qinling pine-oak forest, in which fine roots of Pinus tabuliformis (Pt) and Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata (Qa) were sampled from unthinned plots and plots thinned 6 years (transient phase) and 14 years (persistent phase) prior, respectively. We analyzed the morphological and chemical traits of both absorptive and transport fine roots (0–20 cm depth) to decipher their distinct adaptation strategies. The results showed that Pt enhanced morphological plasticity in both absorptive and transport roots at T₂₀₁₀ (e.g., specific root length: +44% and 37%, p < 0.05). In contrast, Qa showed minimal changes in absorptive root morphology and chemistry (p > 0.05). Redundancy analysis indicated that thinning intensified functional divergence in root strategies between the two tree species and between the two root functional types (i.e., absorptive vs. transport fine roots). Hierarchical variance partitioning analysis indicated that root functional type was the primary driver (51.9%), with tree species identity (Pt vs. Qa) and thinning practices being secondary. Critically, soil properties significantly shaped absorptive root traits (explaining 10.4% of the variance) but did not affect transport root traits, whereas thinning was a dominant factor for transport roots (21.6%). This insight enables the tailoring of silvicultural interventions to tree species-specific foraging strategies, optimizing belowground resource acquisition in mixed forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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19 pages, 2307 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Companion Tree Species on Soil Fertility, Enzyme Activities, and Organic Carbon Components in Eucalyptus Mixed Plantations in Southern China

by Junyu Zhao, Qin Ke, Yuanyuan Shi, Xianchong Song, Zuoyu Qin and Jian Tang

Forests 2026, 17(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17010022 - 24 Dec 2025

Abstract

The long-term monoculture of Eucalyptus plantations in southern China has raised ecological concerns, prompting a shift towards mixed-species plantations as a sustainable alternative. This study investigates the mechanisms by which companion tree species enhance soil functionality in subtropical red soil regions. A field [...] Read more.

The long-term monoculture of Eucalyptus plantations in southern China has raised ecological concerns, prompting a shift towards mixed-species plantations as a sustainable alternative. This study investigates the mechanisms by which companion tree species enhance soil functionality in subtropical red soil regions. A field experiment compared a pure Eucalyptus (CK) plantation with three mixed-species plantations: Eucalyptus × Mytilaria laosensis (A × M), Eucalyptus × Magnolia hypolampra (A × H), and Eucalyptus × Michelia gioii (A × X). Comprehensive soil analyses were conducted at three soil depths (0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm) to assess chemical properties, enzyme activities, and humus components, and soil organic carbon (SOC) molecular structure was characterized by Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), with the relationships quantified using structural equation modeling (SEM) to test predefined causal hypotheses. The results showed that A × H significantly boosted topsoil fertility (e.g., OM: 46.61 g/kg), while A × M enhanced the recalcitrant organic carbon (ROC: 35.29 g/kg), indicating superior carbon sequestration potential. The FTIR analysis revealed species-specific alterations in SOC chemistry, such as increased aromatic compounds in A × H/A × X. The SEM analysis demonstrated that the latent variable “Humus” (reflected by LOC and ROC) directly and positively influenced the latent variable “Soil Fertility” (reflected by pH, OM, and AP; path coefficient: 0.62). In contrast, the latent variable “Organic Components” (reflected by specific FTIR functional groups) exhibited a significant direct negative effect on “Soil Fertility” (−0.41). The significant pathway from “Organic Components” to “Enzymatic Activity” (0.55*) underscored the role of microbial mediation. The study concludes that mixed plantations, particularly with Mytilaria laosensis (A × M), improve soil health through an “organic input–microbial enzyme response–humus formation” pathway, offering a scientific basis for sustainable forestry practices that balance productivity and ecological resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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