Forests

19 pages, 5461 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Melatonin on Antioxidant Enzymes and Soluble Metabolites in Salt–Alkali-Stressed Poplar (Populus spp.): A Comparative Study of Pretreatment and Post-Treatment Effects

by Nai Jiefei, He Wanpeng, Ma Tieming, Han Xidong, Luo Zhenxing, Li Xinyu, Sun Jiatong and Zhao Xiyang

Forests 2026, 17(3), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030373 (registering DOI) - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

Melatonin plays a crucial role in modulating plant stress responses; however, its potential for mitigating salt–alkali stress remains incompletely understood. This study evaluates the efficacy of exogenous melatonin in alleviating moderate salt–alkali stress (120 mM) in poplar (Populus davidiana × P. bolleana [...] Read more.

Melatonin plays a crucial role in modulating plant stress responses; however, its potential for mitigating salt–alkali stress remains incompletely understood. This study evaluates the efficacy of exogenous melatonin in alleviating moderate salt–alkali stress (120 mM) in poplar (Populus davidiana × P. bolleana ‘Baicheng Shanxinyang No. 1’) seedlings, investigating both pre- and post-stress treatments across a concentration range of 0–1000 μM. Physiological and morphological parameters, including chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activities, and osmolyte accumulation, were analyzed to assess stress responses. Under salt–alkali stress, seedlings exhibited elevated stress markers and osmolyte levels, reflecting activated stress responses. Melatonin at concentrations of 200–400 μM was the most effective in mitigating stress, significantly enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), restoring chlorophyll content, and reducing oxidative damage markers such as malondialdehyde (MDA). It also regulated osmotic balance in leaves, indicating improved cellular stability under stress. Notably, post-stress application required slightly higher melatonin concentrations to achieve comparable recovery, highlighting the critical influence of application timing. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing melatonin use to improve poplar growth in saline–alkali environments and support molecular breeding efforts aimed at developing salt–alkali-tolerant poplar varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Physiology of Forest Plants: Mechanisms, Strategies, and Responses to Environmental Challenges)

25 pages, 31730 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism-Driven Adaptive Combined Inversion of Forest Height Using P-Band PolInSAR Data

by Feifei Dai, Wangfei Zhang, Yongjie Ji and Han Zhao

Forests 2026, 17(3), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030372 - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

Forest height is a key parameter for quantifying forest biomass and carbon stocks and serves as an important indicator of forest ecosystem health. The successful launch of the European Space Agency’s P-band Biomass satellite, which provides Polarimetric Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolInSAR) data [...] Read more.

Forest height is a key parameter for quantifying forest biomass and carbon stocks and serves as an important indicator of forest ecosystem health. The successful launch of the European Space Agency’s P-band Biomass satellite, which provides Polarimetric Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PolInSAR) data for global high-precision forest height mapping, heralds a new era in global forest carbon monitoring. However, the accuracy of forest height inversion is significantly influenced by scattering mechanisms. This study investigates the impact of dominant scattering mechanisms on forest height inversion accuracy. Four classical algorithms were selected: the polarimetric phase center height estimation method (PPC), the complex coherence phase center differencing algorithm (CCPCD), the coherence amplitude inversion method (CAI), and the hybrid inversion method using both phase and coherence information. The Freeman–Durden three-component decomposition was employed to identify the dominant scattering mechanisms. The results show that (1) at P-band, inversion model performance exhibits strong coupling with scattering mechanisms, and no single algorithm achieves global robustness; (2) the hybrid inversion method using both phase and coherence information performs better in regions dominated by surface and double-bounce scattering, whereas the coherence amplitude inversion method (CAI) yields higher accuracy in volume-scattering-dominated regions; and (3) the adaptive joint inversion strategy based on scattering mechanisms achieved a root mean square error (

RMSE

) of 4.62 m and a coefficient of determination (

R^{2}

) of 0.76 at P-band, representing an improvement of approximately 30% over the best single-model performance (

RMSE

= 6.51 m). This approach overcomes the accuracy limitations of single models in complex global forest scenarios and provides a valuable reference for scientific forest height inversion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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24 pages, 4055 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experimental Study of Rope-Type Moso Bamboo Transportation Equipment

by Hang Zheng, Hongliang Huang, Wenfu Zhang, Xianglei Xue, Ning Ren, Zhaowei Hu, Jiezheng Zheng and Guohong Yu

Forests 2026, 17(3), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030371 - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

To address the limitations regarding poor adaptability to complex forest environments as well as high installation and operational costs in existing mountain transportation equipment, a modular cable-type equipment for moso bamboo transportation was designed based on the terrain characteristics of steep bamboo forests [...] Read more.

To address the limitations regarding poor adaptability to complex forest environments as well as high installation and operational costs in existing mountain transportation equipment, a modular cable-type equipment for moso bamboo transportation was designed based on the terrain characteristics of steep bamboo forests and specific transportation requirements. This study first presents the overall structure and working principle of the transportation equipment. Next, a theoretical analysis and component selection were conducted for critical parts such as the wire rope, supporting components, wire-rope-driven devices, and hydraulic systems. Then, the static characteristics of the supporting components and the vibration characteristics of the wire rope were simulated and analyzed. Finally, performance testing of the equipment was conducted, focusing on transportation productivity and machine utilization. The results showed that the maximum deformation of the supporting components was 1.75 mm, occurring at the lower roller–rail contact region. During unloading, the first-order principal vibration amplitude of the wire rope had the greatest impact at the mid-span position, with a value of 0.27 m. The vibration frequency of the wire rope during operation is influenced by the its initial tension, load mass, and attachment distance, with the first-order frequency range approximately between 0.85 and 3.90 Hz. Within this frequency range, the bouncing excitation caused by moso bamboo does not induce resonance in the wire rope. The transportation productivity of the equipment was 2.61 tons per hour, with the machine utilization rate exceeding 95%. This study indicates that the designed cable-type equipment effectively meets the requirements for moso bamboo transportation in complex forest environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Operations and Engineering)

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18 pages, 2964 KB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Supporting a High Level of Understorey Plant Diversity in Ravine Forests (EU Priority Habitat Type)

by Lado Kutnar, Anže Martin Pintar, Aleksander Marinšek and Janez Kermavnar

Forests 2026, 17(3), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030370 - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

In addition to being influenced by global drivers, forest herb-layer communities are also shaped by various local factors, such as topography, stand characteristics and soil properties. The responses of ground vegetation were studied in the ravine forests of a Natura 2000 site in [...] Read more.

In addition to being influenced by global drivers, forest herb-layer communities are also shaped by various local factors, such as topography, stand characteristics and soil properties. The responses of ground vegetation were studied in the ravine forests of a Natura 2000 site in eastern Slovenia. A high species richness of 218 plant species was observed in the herb layer, including some woody species. On average, 52.8 different plant species were recorded per plot. Species richness was significantly associated with topographic and forest stand factors, rather than soil characteristics. It was positively associated with altitude and the amount of deadwood and negatively associated with tree height. However, the main predictors for the species composition of the ground vegetation were tree layer cover and soil pH. Among the studied ravine forests, Tilia-dominated stands are characterised by the highest species diversity and the lowest herb-layer cover, indicating a composition of less competitive, site-specific species inhabiting sites with high resource heterogeneity and diverse microhabitats. To preserve the high level of biodiversity of heterogeneous ravine forests and to maintain their favourable conservation status, it is crucial to sustain the natural state of forest soils and stands by implementing appropriate management measures. Such measures may include close-to-nature forest management, which is already being implemented in the studied ravine forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Species Diversity and Habitat Conservation in Forest)

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25 pages, 3332 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Carbon Compensation Accounting and Zoning Optimization Path from the Perspective of Carbon Budget in Fujian Province

by Wanmei Chen, Youquan Ouyang, Wanyi Liu, Jixing Huang, Xiaoyan Hong, Jinhuang Lin and Guoxing Huang

Forests 2026, 17(3), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030369 - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

Rapid urbanization has seriously interfered with the carbon sink function of forests, and has even led to an increased risk of forest carbon imbalance. It is important to explore the regional carbon compensation mechanism and zoning optimization path based on forest carbon accounting [...] Read more.

Rapid urbanization has seriously interfered with the carbon sink function of forests, and has even led to an increased risk of forest carbon imbalance. It is important to explore the regional carbon compensation mechanism and zoning optimization path based on forest carbon accounting to achieve the “dual carbon” goal and sustainable forest management in Fujian Province. Based on remote sensing and GIS technologies, this study measured forest carbon emissions and carbon sequestration of each county in Fujian Province, revealed spatial and temporal evolution of forest carbon budget during the period from 2000 to 2020, and calculated carbon compensation value of each county, so as to realize scientific accounting of forest carbon compensation, and then explored zoning optimization pathways of forest carbon compensation in Fujian Province. The results show the following: (1) From 2000 to 2020, the forest carbon budget in Fujian Province as a whole showed a spatial pattern of “coastal deficit, northwest surplus”, with obvious spatial imbalance characteristics, and showed a high growth trend of net carbon sequestration. (2) From 2000 to 2020, the average carbon compensation rate in Fujian Province was 7.92, and compensation zones were mainly concentrated in the economically developed southeast coastal regins such as Fuzhou, Quanzhou, Xiamen, Zhangzhou, and Putian, while compensation-receiving zones were mainly concentrated in northwestern mountainous areas such as Nanping, Ningde, and Longyan, which had a high forest coverage rate. (3) From 2000 to 2020, there was a significant difference in growth rates of compensation amounts and compensation-receiving amounts in Fujian Province. The cumulative increase in compensation amounts was 322.82%, while the cumulative increase in compensation-receiving amounts was only 17.5%. (4) Based on priority levels, the counties in Fujian Province are classified into six types of forest carbon compensation zones—potential compensation zones, secondary compensation zones, priority compensation zones, potential compensation-receiving zones, secondary compensation-receiving zones and priority compensation-receiving zones—and optimization paths of differentiated zones are explored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Ecosystem Dynamics, Carbon-Nitrogen Cycling and Environmental Systems)

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25 pages, 2446 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fractal Analysis of Timber Prices: Evidence from the Polish Regional Timber Market

by Anna Kożuch, Dominika Cywicka and Agnieszka Jakóbik

Forests 2026, 17(3), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030368 - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

Timber price dynamics are most often analysed using trends, seasonality, and classical measures of volatility, which describe the magnitude of fluctuations but only to a limited extent capture the temporal structure of the price-generating process. The aim of this study is to identify [...] Read more.

Timber price dynamics are most often analysed using trends, seasonality, and classical measures of volatility, which describe the magnitude of fluctuations but only to a limited extent capture the temporal structure of the price-generating process. The aim of this study is to identify the structural complexity and long-term memory of quarterly prices of WC0 pine timber in the regional timber market in Poland. The analysis is based on nominal net prices (PLN/m³) from 16 forest districts of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Kraków over the period 2005–2024, with reference to nationally averaged timber prices. Long-term dependence is assessed using the Hurst exponent estimated by detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) applied to log returns, while the geometric complexity of price trajectories is characterised by the fractal dimension and additionally validated using the Higuchi estimator. Cross-sectional results reveal substantial spatial heterogeneity in scaling properties, indicating the coexistence of persistent (trend-following) and corrective (anti-persistent) dynamics across forest districts. Rolling-window analysis (40 quarters) demonstrates temporal variability in price dynamics, with particularly pronounced shifts observed in 2019–2021. Cluster analysis based on time-varying Hurst exponent values identifies two groups of forest districts with distinct persistence trajectories, corresponding to more trend-dominated and corrective price dynamics. In contrast, national-level prices generally exhibit higher persistence than local prices, reflecting the effects of price aggregation. Overall, the results show that fractal analysis uncovers persistent spatial and temporal differences in timber price structures that remain invisible when relying solely on variance-based measures, with direct implications for the choice of planning horizons and timber sale strategies in regional markets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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16 pages, 3011 KB

Open AccessArticle

Edaphic Determinants of Biomass Hyperdominance in Large Trees of the Amazon

by Manuelle Pereira, Jorge Luis Reategui-Betancourt, Robson de Lima, Paulo Bittencourt, Eric Gorgens, Gustavo Abreu, Marcelino Guedes, José Silva, Carla de Sousa, Joselane Priscila da Silva, Elisama de Souza and Diego Armando Silva

Forests 2026, 17(3), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030367 - 16 Mar 2026

Abstract

Amazonian large trees act as central elements of forest ecosystems, storing a disproportionate fraction of aboveground biomass. However, these trees are not randomly distributed across the landscape, and it is expected that edaphic attributes influence floristic composition, forest structure, and vegetation biomass. In [...] Read more.

Amazonian large trees act as central elements of forest ecosystems, storing a disproportionate fraction of aboveground biomass. However, these trees are not randomly distributed across the landscape, and it is expected that edaphic attributes influence floristic composition, forest structure, and vegetation biomass. In this study, we investigated how variation in soil chemical and physical properties affects the diversity and biomass of large trees. Forest inventories were conducted at five sites within protected areas in the states of Pará and Amapá. Aboveground biomass was estimated using allometric equations, while soil samples were analyzed for their physical and chemical properties. Diversity indices, rarefaction, Redundancy Analysis, and Generalized Additive Models were applied. Edaphic variables such as soil pH, organic matter, phosphorus, and aluminum were associated with floristic composition and the biomass of these individuals. Trees with a diameter at breast height greater than or equal to 70 cm accounted for up to 80% of total biomass, revealing a pattern of biomass hyperdominance. The results indicate that the occurrence of large trees is related to edaphic and structural attributes, such as tree density and size distribution, suggesting that these individuals are not randomly distributed along soil gradients. Understanding these patterns is essential for improving ecological models, biomass extrapolations, and management strategies aimed at conserving the Amazon rainforest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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5 pages, 899 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Forest Biometrics, Inventory, and Modelling of Growth and Yield

by Antonio Carlos Ferraz Filho, Andressa Ribeiro, Kennedy de Paiva Porfírio and Emanuel José Gomes De Araújo

Forests 2026, 17(3), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030366 - 15 Mar 2026

Abstract

Forests provide essential ecosystem services and renewable resources that support both human well-being and environmental sustainability [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Biometrics, Inventory, and Modelling of Growth and Yield)

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33 pages, 8401 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Pore Architecture and Hydraulic Functioning of Native Forest and Sugarcane Systems with and Without Cover Crop Intercropping Revealed by X-Ray Computed Tomography

by Gabriel Oladele Awe, Ademir de Oliveira Ferreira, Brivaldo Gomes de Almeida, Williams Ramos da Silva, Antonio Celso Dantas Antonino and José Miguel Reichert

Forests 2026, 17(3), 365; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030365 - 14 Mar 2026

Abstract

Soil pore architecture and hydraulic functioning strongly regulate water flow and retention. However, despite the growing application of X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) in soil science, its application in characterizing the pore system and hydraulic functioning of native forest soils converted to sugarcane [...] Read more.

Soil pore architecture and hydraulic functioning strongly regulate water flow and retention. However, despite the growing application of X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) in soil science, its application in characterizing the pore system and hydraulic functioning of native forest soils converted to sugarcane production systems in northeast Brazil is still poorly known. This study therefore quantified the soil structure, pore system, and hydraulic functioning of a native forest (NF) and an adjacent sugarcane field receiving vinasse and managed without intercropping (sole sugarcane (SG)) and with Brachiaria ruziziensis intercropping (SG + Bra intercrop) in northeastern Brazil, using conventional soil physical measurements and X-ray CT, in three soil layers (0–10, 10–20, and 20–40 cm). Soil physical and hydraulic properties, as well as soil water retention, were quantified. The native forest soil exhibited a uniformly sandy texture across all depths, whereas sugarcane systems ranged from loam to sandy textures in surface layers due to long-term management. Soil organic matter and total nitrogen in the 0–10 cm layer were approximately 75 and 65% higher, respectively, in sole Sole SG and SG + Bra intercrop than in NF. Soil bulk density increased with depth under sugarcane, reaching values about 10%–13% higher than NF in the 20–40 cm layer. Saturated hydraulic conductivity in the surface layer was higher in the NF, approximately five to nine times greater than in sole SG and SG + Bra intercrop, respectively. Conventional water retention analysis showed that sole SG and SG + Bra intercrop had greater total porosity (0.49–0.55 m³ m⁻³), microporosity (0.26–0.36 m³ m⁻³), field capacity (0.19–0.33 m³ m⁻³), and plant available water (0.09–0.15 m³ m⁻³) in the upper 20 cm compared with the NF (≤0.10 m³ m⁻³ available water). In contrast, X-ray CT revealed higher macroporosity (0.20–0.23 mm³ mm⁻³) and pore connectivity in the NF across all depths, with predominantly complex, inclined to near-horizontal pores and low anisotropy. Intercropping sugarcane with Brachiaria did not significantly alter (p > 0.05) bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, or CT-derived pore connectivity relative to sole sugarcane. The degree of anisotropy and fractal dimension derived from X-ray CT were significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with conventionally measured hydraulic properties. The X-ray computed tomography proved effective in linking pore-scale architecture to soil hydraulic functioning, providing insights beyond conventional measurements. The short-term inclusion of Brachiaria as a cover crop at 10 kg seed ha⁻¹ did not result in significant improvements in soil pore structure, indicating that longer-term adoption and/or higher planting densities may be required to induce measurable changes in pore system architecture and soil hydraulic functioning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soil Stability in Response to Global Change Scenarios)

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23 pages, 5281 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Application of Ammonium and Nitrate Nitrogen Enhances Phytoremediation Efficiency by Mediating Biomass and Bioavailability of Lead and Cadmium in Salix linearistipularis

by Jian Zhou, Dongliu Di, Yaoyao Zhang, Zhuotian Gao, Xiaoyun Niu, Dazhuang Huang and Keye Zhu

Forests 2026, 17(3), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030364 - 14 Mar 2026

Abstract

This study aims to elucidate the effects and mechanisms of ammonium (NH₄⁺-N) and nitrate (NO₃⁻-N) nitrogen on the efficiency of Salix linearistipularis K. S. Hao in remediating heavy metal-contaminated soils. Thus, the effects of 15 fertilization treatments [...] Read more.

This study aims to elucidate the effects and mechanisms of ammonium (NH₄⁺-N) and nitrate (NO₃⁻-N) nitrogen on the efficiency of Salix linearistipularis K. S. Hao in remediating heavy metal-contaminated soils. Thus, the effects of 15 fertilization treatments (comprising three nitrogen levels and five nitrogen form ratios) on Pb and Cd accumulation, soil properties, microbial structure, and metabolic characteristics were investigated using a pot experiment. The results indicated that Pb and Cd accumulation were the highest under the L12 treatment (60 kg N·hm⁻²·year⁻¹, NH₄⁺-N/NO₃⁻-N = 1:2), whereas nitrate-only treatments, irrespective of concentration, resulted in a decrease in accumulation. In the L12 treatment, biomass increased by 87.0%, with Pb and Cd accumulation rising by 85.71% and 80.0%, respectively, suggesting that biomass may contribute predominantly to heavy metal accumulation. Additionally, NH₄⁺-N/NO₃⁻-N ratio had a greater effect on biomass than the nitrogen application amount. Microbial composition was altered, and the relative abundance of heavy metal-resistant microbes increased. However, the amount of nitrogen fertilizer had a stronger impact on microbial variation. Under different nitrogen application rates and NH₄⁺-N/NO₃⁻-N ratios, the formation or disappearance of unique metabolic pathways related to amino acids and carbohydrates was observed. Furthermore, both microbial metabolism and the bioavailability of Pb and Cd were positively correlated with nitrogen levels and NH₄⁺-N/NO₃⁻-N ratios. These findings indicate a potential association between shifts in microbial metabolism and the bioavailability of heavy metals. Therefore, the simultaneous application of ammonium and nitrate nitrogen in appropriate ratios can enhance the remediation efficiency of S. linearistipularis by boosting biomass and heavy metal bioavailability via microbial metabolism. The findings of this study not only provide novel insights into improving the phytoremediation efficiency of woody plants through fertilization strategies but also lay a theoretical foundation for the effects of nitrogen fertilization on nutrient cycling in metal-contaminated soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unlocking the Secrets of Soil: How Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics Shape Forest Ecosystems)

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27 pages, 12383 KB

Open AccessArticle

Invasion Status, Distribution, and Environmental Preferences of Non-Native Ornamental Thunbergia Species (Acanthaceae) in Ecuador: An Emerging Threat to Tropical Montane Forests

by Ana Reyes-Hernández, Ileana Herrera, Anahí Vargas, Nora H. Oleas, Josue Alvarez and Jordi López-Pujol

Forests 2026, 17(3), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030363 - 14 Mar 2026

Abstract

Species of the genus Thunbergia, native to Africa, Asia, and Australia, are widely cultivated as ornamental plants; however, their ability to escape cultivation and establish themselves in novel environments poses a growing threat to tropical forests. Here, we provide the first nationwide [...] Read more.

Species of the genus Thunbergia, native to Africa, Asia, and Australia, are widely cultivated as ornamental plants; however, their ability to escape cultivation and establish themselves in novel environments poses a growing threat to tropical forests. Here, we provide the first nationwide assessment of Thunbergia species occurring in Ecuador, integrating data from citizen science platforms, herbarium collections, and field surveys. We analyzed spatiotemporal patterns of occurrence, evaluated invasion status based on wild persistence and spread, and assessed environmental preferences using climatic niche analyses. Species distributions were further examined across land-cover types, conservation areas, and forest–non-forest interfaces. We confirmed the presence of five Thunbergia species in Ecuador, two of which also occur in the Galapagos Islands. All species were recorded both in cultivation and in the wild, indicating ornamental horticulture as the main introduction pathway for the genus, and occurrences were documented within 24 conservation areas. Thunbergia alata, T. fragrans, and T. grandiflora were categorized as invasive in Ecuador. Among them, T. fragrans exhibited broad environmental tolerance across bioregions. Wild occurrences were predominantly associated with human-modified landscapes but frequently occurred near forest edges, indicating ongoing encroachment into natural forests. These findings highlight the urgent need for preventive and targeted management strategies, particularly against T. alata, which represents an emerging threat to Andean forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Non-Native Species in Forest Ecosystems)

32 pages, 1909 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Forests Influence Farmer Access to Healthy Diets: The Roles of Cost and Environmental Quality

by Lingying Li, Huiyu Peng and Wenmei Liao

Forests 2026, 17(3), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030362 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

Forests are important food granaries. The accessibility of a healthy diet is the key factor in food and health equity. However, there is a lack of research focusing on its influence on locals at different levels of development. China’s population comprises various groups [...] Read more.

Forests are important food granaries. The accessibility of a healthy diet is the key factor in food and health equity. However, there is a lack of research focusing on its influence on locals at different levels of development. China’s population comprises various groups of farmers, allowing for the comparison of influence pathways across different economic levels of farmers. This research explores the topic with an empirical study conducted in Jiangxi Province, China, using data from 1939 valid responses collected across 216 villages. The analysis was performed using a mixed-effects ordered logistic model and a mediation effect model. The results of the baseline and mediation effect analyses reveal that there are four influence pathways. First, farmers’ forest resource endowments play a significant role in improving farmers’ perception of healthy diet accessibility (direct access type). Second, farmers’ forest resource endowments increase the accessibility of healthy diets by reducing the perceived costs of healthy diets (cost-relieving type). Third, farmers’ forest resource endowments increase the accessibility of a healthy diet by enhancing the perceived quality of the natural environment (quality scarcity type). Fourth, farmers’ forest resource endowments increase the perceived environmental quality, decrease the perceived costs of healthy diets, and affect the perception of healthy diets’ accessibility (cost-reducing type). The results of heterogeneity analysis based on the independent variables (health-related information, age, education level, disposable income, household size, communication and transportation convenience) reveal that for disadvantaged groups, the effect type tends to be the “direct access type” and “cost-relieving type”, and for advantaged groups, the effect type tends to be the “quality scarcity type”. Through empirical analysis, this study explains how forest resource endowments of different farmer groups influence their access to healthy diets, which lays a foundation for better understanding the association and formulating relevant policies. Decision makers should recognize the distinct influence of forest resource endowments on different farmer groups and develop policies related to forest resource management and healthy diets for farmers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry Economy Sustainability and Ecosystem Governance)

21 pages, 1866 KB

Open AccessArticle

Landowner Awareness, Participation, and Satisfaction in Watershed Stewardship Programs: A Diffusion of Innovations Lens

by Anusha Lamsal, René H. Germain, Eddie Bevilacqua and Kristopher Brown

Forests 2026, 17(3), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030361 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

Watershed stewardship programs succeed when intended users progress from awareness to participation. This study applies diffusion of innovations theory to five forestry, agricultural, and economic viability programs administered by the Watershed Agricultural Council in the New York City watershed. These five programs are [...] Read more.

Watershed stewardship programs succeed when intended users progress from awareness to participation. This study applies diffusion of innovations theory to five forestry, agricultural, and economic viability programs administered by the Watershed Agricultural Council in the New York City watershed. These five programs are voluntary and intended to support water quality and community vitality on working lands. A survey of nonindustrial private farm and forest landowners measured awareness, participation, and satisfaction across the watershed programs. Awareness was limited and participation was rare, yet nearly all participants reported high satisfaction, indicating an entry bottleneck at the awareness-to-participation stage. Logistic regression and generalized estimating equations models showed higher participation among landowners with larger acreage. The study recommends strengthening existing extension and outreach to better communicate programs’ relative advantages and increase observability through peer examples and targeted messaging to improve enrollment among eligible landowners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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21 pages, 2176 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of the Operational Status of Leading Forest Management Zones for the Advancement of Forest Management Strategies: A Case Study in South Korea

by Soongil Kwon, Gunhyeong Lee, Seungho Kim, Hyewon Kim and Chiung Ko

Forests 2026, 17(3), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030360 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

Following successful national forest restoration projects, South Korea has designated and operates Leading Forest Management Zones (LFMZs) to improve forest quality and promote sustainable use. The objective of this study is to comparatively evaluate the operational characteristics of 26 LFMZs (5 national and [...] Read more.

Following successful national forest restoration projects, South Korea has designated and operates Leading Forest Management Zones (LFMZs) to improve forest quality and promote sustainable use. The objective of this study is to comparatively evaluate the operational characteristics of 26 LFMZs (5 national and 21 private forests) based on complete long-term data from 2013 to 2024 and to identify ownership-based structural differences in integrated forest management performance. Five core indicators representing the forest management cycle (afforestation, timber harvest, forest products, forest roads, and forest tending) were analyzed using multivariate statistical methods. Permutational Multivariate Analysis of Variance (PERMANOVA) results revealed statistically significant structural differences between national and private forest management systems (F = 13.22, p = 0.001, R² = 0.47). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) identified forest road development and timber harvest intensity as the primary drivers of these differences. National forest LFMZs exhibited consistently higher and more balanced management intensity across all indicators, supported by stable institutional frameworks and professional management capacity. In contrast, private forest LFMZs showed substantial variability in performance, reflecting differences in ownership structure and regional conditions. Correlation analysis further demonstrated strong positive relationships among afforestation, forest tending, forest road development, and timber harvest, underscoring the importance of integrated forest management. These findings provide empirical evidence to support differentiated, ownership-sensitive forest management strategies and contribute to strengthening sustainable forest governance in South Korea under climate change and socio-economic transitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry Economy Sustainability and Ecosystem Governance)

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19 pages, 1333 KB

Open AccessReview

How Forests May Reduce the Incidence of Destructive Tropical Cyclones, Hurricanes and Typhoons

by Douglas Sheil

Forests 2026, 17(3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030359 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

Tropical cyclones kill thousands and inflict vast destruction annually. While ocean temperatures and atmospheric conditions dominate their formation and behaviour, forests’ potential influence has received little systematic attention. This review examines whether and how forests may affect tropical cyclone frequency, intensity, and behaviour. [...] Read more.

Tropical cyclones kill thousands and inflict vast destruction annually. While ocean temperatures and atmospheric conditions dominate their formation and behaviour, forests’ potential influence has received little systematic attention. This review examines whether and how forests may affect tropical cyclone frequency, intensity, and behaviour. Support varies by mechanism and stage. Post-landfall effects have the strongest support: forests slow storms, moderate wind speeds and curb flooding through enhanced soil infiltration. Forests also influence storm tracks, though magnitudes are uncertain. Pre-landfall effects are less certain. These include processes that modify offshore humidity, temperature, and aerosols. The Biotic Pump theory proposes that forest cover creates pressure gradients drawing moisture inland, reducing its availability for ocean storms. Forest influences are likely to be most evident near thresholds for storm formation or intensification, where small perturbations in conditions can alter outcomes. This context-dependency reconciles divergent findings and aids the integration of forests into climate risk assessments. Forest conservation provides clear post-landfall protection; pre-landfall effects, while uncertain, further strengthen the case for protection and highlight research priorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)

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14 pages, 2421 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Kappa Eucalyptus Kraft Pulp in a Biorefinery Context: Balancing Sugar Production with Fiber-Reinforcement Potential

by Clarissa Fleury Rocha, Elaine Cristina Lengowski, Naiara Mariana Fiori Monteiro Sampaio, Priscila Tiemi Higuti do Nascimento, Patrícia Raquel Silva Zanoni, Paulo Roberto de Oliveira, Washington Luiz Esteves Magalhães, José Domingos Fontana and Eraldo Antonio Bonfatti Júnior

Forests 2026, 17(3), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030358 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

To establish a biorefinery within kraft-pulp mills, the extraction of fermentable sugars must be balanced with the preservation of fiber quality for papermaking. This study investigates this trade-off by applying partial enzymatic hydrolysis to unbleached high-kappa eucalyptus kraft pulp to co-produce bioethanol and [...] Read more.

To establish a biorefinery within kraft-pulp mills, the extraction of fermentable sugars must be balanced with the preservation of fiber quality for papermaking. This study investigates this trade-off by applying partial enzymatic hydrolysis to unbleached high-kappa eucalyptus kraft pulp to co-produce bioethanol and packaging-grade materials. Although the mass-transfer limitations inherent to the high-consistency strategy (15% solids or 150 g L⁻¹) restrict extensive saccharification (keeping glucose conversion below 5% at 1.5 h), it naturally directs the process toward a low-severity regime essential for fiber conservation. Structural analysis (X-ray diffraction and microscopy) revealed that enzymes preferentially targeted amorphous regions, increasing crystallinity (from ≈74% to ≈82%) but reducing intrinsic fiber strength (tear) over time (dropping from ~5.6 to ~2.3 mN·m²·g⁻¹ within 30 min). However, a strategic window for valorization has been identified. Instead of direct papermaking, hydrolyzed residue is highly effective as a strength-enhancing additive. When blended (20% w w⁻¹) with commercial pulp, the modified fibers improved interfiber bonding, restored the tensile strength, and significantly increased the Burst Index (up to ~1.7 kPa·m²·g⁻¹). These results demonstrate a viable industrial approach using partial hydrolysis to recover hemicellulose-based sugars for biofuels, while transforming the solid fraction into a high-performance reinforcement agent for paper packaging. This approach effectively converts a potential trade-off into a synergistic dual-product stream. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Forest Biorefineries: Emerging Technologies, Pilot-Scale Case Studies, and Advances in Biomass-Derived Bioproducts)

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14 pages, 2030 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biocontrol Efficacy of Lyophilized Powder and Culture Suspension Formulations of Streptomyces blastmyceticus Against Dryadomyces quercus-mongolicae Causing Oak Wilt Disease in Mongolian Oak

by Jin Heung Lee, Manh Ha Nguyen, Jong Kyu Lee, Dong-Hyeon Lee and Keumchul Shin

Forests 2026, 17(3), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030357 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

Oak trees are widely distributed nationwide and account for approximately 24% of the total forest area in South Korea. However, these species are currently threatened by oak wilt disease caused by Dryadomyces quercus-mongolicae, leading to significant economic and ecological losses in the [...] Read more.

Oak trees are widely distributed nationwide and account for approximately 24% of the total forest area in South Korea. However, these species are currently threatened by oak wilt disease caused by Dryadomyces quercus-mongolicae, leading to significant economic and ecological losses in the forestry industry. This study evaluated the effectiveness of culture suspension and lyophilized powder formulations of Streptomyces blastmyceticus in controlling oak wilt disease on Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica). Field experiments were conducted using trunk and root injection methods in Q. mongolica plantations. The non-conductive area (NCA) of sapwood and colonization rate of the oak wilt fungus were analyzed and compared across treatments. In the Chuncheon experiment, Kangwon province, only the root injection of fungicide showed a significant difference compared to the culture suspension treatments. There were no significant differences between culture suspension and lyophilized powder treatments in Uiwang, Gyeonggi Province. Specifically, both preventive and curative treatments using culture suspension and lyophilized powder of S. blastmyceticus resulted in significantly different NCA values compared to the negative control (8.7%) and positive control (88.5%). The NCA for culture suspension ranged from 33.3% to 49.9%, and for lyophilized powder, from 37.3% to 43.9%. The colonization rate of the oak wilt fungus was lowest (9.72%) in the preventive treatment using lyophilized powder via trunk injection. For the culture suspension, the lowest colonization rate (20.83%) was observed in the curative treatment using trunk injection. These findings suggest that the lyophilized powder formulation of S. blastmyceticus efficiently suppresses the progression of oak wilt disease under field conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenic Fungi in Forest)

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17 pages, 2830 KB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Effects of Thinning on Stand Carbon Density and Sediment Carbon Burial Indicators in Kandelia obovata Sheue & al. Plantation

by Shuangshuang Liu, Xing Liu, Qiuxia Chen, Wenzhen Xin, Sheng Yang and Jinwang Wang

Forests 2026, 17(3), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030356 - 13 Mar 2026

Abstract

To explore the patterns of biomass accumulation and sediment carbon burial indicators in mangrove forests under different thinning intensities, a study was conducted on an 8-year-old Kandelia obovata Sheue & al. plantation on Shupaisha Island, Longwan District, Wenzhou City, Zhejiang Province. Three treatments [...] Read more.

To explore the patterns of biomass accumulation and sediment carbon burial indicators in mangrove forests under different thinning intensities, a study was conducted on an 8-year-old Kandelia obovata Sheue & al. plantation on Shupaisha Island, Longwan District, Wenzhou City, Zhejiang Province. Three treatments were designed: no thinning (CK), 20% thinning, and 40% thinning. Stand growth and plant carbon density were evaluated for all three treatments at the initial thinning stage and two years later. Sediment carbon density and organic carbon burial rate were assessed only for CK and 20% thinning. Thinning significantly enhanced mangrove growth and plant carbon storage. Compared with unthinned stands, 20% and 40% thinning treatments significantly increased branch diameter and biomass (p < 0.05). The order of mangrove height was 20% thinning > 40% thinning > CK. The plant carbon densities in the 20% and 40% thinned stands were 16.31 Mg C·ha⁻¹ and 15.30 Mg C·ha⁻¹, respectively, far exceeding that of the control (4.80 Mg C·ha⁻¹). In contrast, sediment carbon responses were negative in the short term. After thinning, the sedimentation rate and organic carbon content in mangrove sediments decreased. Sediment carbon density decreased from 88.10 Mg C·ha⁻¹ in unthinned stands to 85.02 Mg C·ha⁻¹ under 20% thinning, accompanied by a reduction in carbon burial rate. Overall, these two-year results indicate increased plant carbon storage under thinning, whereas measured sediment carbon indicators under moderate thinning declined over the same period. Longer-term monitoring is needed to assess whether these short-term responses translate into net ecosystem carbon consequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mangrove Ecosystems in the Face of Climate Change: Resilience, Adaptation, and Conservation Strategies)

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25 pages, 4469 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tackling Scale Variation and Annotation Scarcity in Semi-Supervised Small Pest Detection with Image Slicing and Pseudo-Label Refinement

by Cheng Li, Qingqing Wen, Fengya Xu, Ruikang Luo, Zengjie Du, Zhongbin Liu and Dasheng Wu

Forests 2026, 17(3), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/f17030355 - 11 Mar 2026

Abstract

Small pest detection in ultra-high-resolution forestry images is challenging due to extreme scale variation, complex backgrounds, and limited annotated data. To address these issues, we propose SSFPDet (Semi-Supervised Forest Pest Detector), a semi-supervised object detection framework designed for low-annotation settings. Built upon the [...] Read more.

Small pest detection in ultra-high-resolution forestry images is challenging due to extreme scale variation, complex backgrounds, and limited annotated data. To address these issues, we propose SSFPDet (Semi-Supervised Forest Pest Detector), a semi-supervised object detection framework designed for low-annotation settings. Built upon the Soft Teacher paradigm, SSFPDet integrates a YOLO-T-based overlapping slicing strategy, a Top-K pseudo-label selection mechanism, and a Kullback–Leibler (KL) divergence-based distribution alignment constraint. The slicing strategy enhances small-object representation without modifying the detector backbone, while the Top-K and KL modules improve pseudo-label reliability and semantic consistency during training. Under the 20% labeled setting, SSFPDet achieves an mAP@0.5:0.95 of 46.6, outperforming the baseline by 0.7 points. Notably, small-object detection performance (AP_S) improves by 6.6 percentage points. Ablation studies confirm the complementary contributions of spatial slicing and semantic alignment. Overall, SSFPDet provides a practical and scalable solution for high-resolution forestry pest monitoring under limited supervision. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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