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Factors Influencing the Faunal Recolonization of Restored Thornscrub Forest Habitats
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Forest Restoration Thinning Has Minimal Impacts on Surface Soil Carbon in a Second-Growth Temperate Rainforest
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Charting the Research Status for Bamboo Resources and Bamboo as a Sustainable Plastic Alternative: A Bibliometric Review
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Assessment of New Techniques for Measuring Volume in Large Wood Chip Piles
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Managing Trees Species of High Social and Cultural Value: Forest Manager Attitudes towards Pest and Disease Risks to Oak in Britain
Journal Description
Forests
Forests
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests.
Impact Factor:
2.4 (2023);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.7 (2023)
Latest Articles
A Multi-Input Residual Network for Non-Destructive Prediction of Wood Mechanical Properties
Forests 2025, 16(2), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020355 (registering DOI) - 16 Feb 2025
Abstract
Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) are crucial indicators for assessing the application value of wood. However, traditional physical testing methods for the mechanical properties of wood are typically destructive, costly, and time-consuming. To efficiently assess these properties, this study
[...] Read more.
Modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) are crucial indicators for assessing the application value of wood. However, traditional physical testing methods for the mechanical properties of wood are typically destructive, costly, and time-consuming. To efficiently assess these properties, this study proposes a multi-input residual network (MIRN) model, which integrates microscopic images of wood with physical density data and leverages deep learning technology for rapid and accurate predictions. By using larger convolution kernels to enhance the receptive field, the model captures fine microstructural features in the images. Batch normalization layers were removed from the ResNet architecture to reduce the number of parameters and improve training stability. Shortcut connections were utilized to enable deeper network architectures and address the vanishing gradient problem. Two types of residual blocks, convolutional block and identity block, were defined based on input dimensional changes. The MIRN method, based on multi-input residual networks, is proposed for non-destructive testing of wood mechanical properties. The experimental results show that MIRN outperforms convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and ResNet-50 in predicting MOE and MOR, with an R2 of 0.95 for MOE and RMSE reduced to 46.88, as well as an R2 of 0.85 for MOR and an RMSE of 0.44. Thus, this method offers an efficient and cost-effective tool for wood processing and quality control.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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Growth and Energy Characteristics of Arboreal Wood Irrigated with Treated Effluent in Degraded Soil of Semi-Arid Regions
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Victor Junior Lima Felix, Salomão de Sousa Medeiros, Vanderléia Fernanda dos Santos Araújo, Pedro Nicó de Medeiros Neto, Rodrigo Santana Macedo, Robson Vinício dos Santos, Vânia da Silva Fraga and Milton César Costa Campos
Forests 2025, 16(2), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020354 (registering DOI) - 16 Feb 2025
Abstract
The management of forest species in the recovery of degraded areas of semi-arid regions is mainly limited by the availability of water and nutrients. Thus, the objective of this research was to evaluate the growth, yield, and energy characteristics of the wood of
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The management of forest species in the recovery of degraded areas of semi-arid regions is mainly limited by the availability of water and nutrients. Thus, the objective of this research was to evaluate the growth, yield, and energy characteristics of the wood of two forest species of the Brazilian semi-arid region subjected to deficient irrigation with sewage effluent by drip in degraded soil. For this, a field experiment was conducted in an agroforestry system with two native species of the Caatinga biome: sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth) and aroeira (Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão), intercropped with forage palm (Opuntia stricta (Haw) Haw). The wastewater used was domestic, coming from kitchen and bathroom sinks, which underwent primary and secondary treatment. The irrigation treatments were applied in the first two years: in the first year, water supply in the volume of 0.5 L/plant/week (WS0.5), treated effluent in the volume of 0.5 L/plant/week (TE0.5), and treated effluent in the volume of 1 L/plant/week (TE1). In the second year, all treatments were leveled at 0.5 L/plant/week, and in the following two years, all irrigation treatments were discontinued. Growth variables were monitored and, at the end of the study period, wood production was calculated and energetic analyses were performed. The Richards model adjusted satisfactorily to the growth variables for the species studied. The treated effluent at a volume of 1 L/week increased the yield in condensed liquid and decreased the volatile materials (VM) of sabiá, while in aroeira it increased the basic density and VM, with a decrease in the gravimetric yield.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Soil Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties)
Open AccessArticle
Development of Full Growth Cycle Crown Width Models for Chinese Fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) in Southern China
by
Zheyuan Wu, Dongbo Xie, Ziyang Liu, Linyan Feng, Qiaolin Ye, Jinsheng Ye, Qiulai Wang, Xingyong Liao, Yongjun Wang, Ram P. Sharma and Liyong Fu
Forests 2025, 16(2), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020353 (registering DOI) - 16 Feb 2025
Abstract
This study focused on 16,101 Cunninghamia lanceolata trees across 133 plots in seven cities of Guangdong Province, China, to develop a comprehensive full growth cycle crown width (CW) model. We systematically analyzed the dynamic characteristics of CW and its multi-scale influencing mechanisms. A
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This study focused on 16,101 Cunninghamia lanceolata trees across 133 plots in seven cities of Guangdong Province, China, to develop a comprehensive full growth cycle crown width (CW) model. We systematically analyzed the dynamic characteristics of CW and its multi-scale influencing mechanisms. A binary basic model, with the diameter at breast height (DBH) and height (H) as core predictor variables, effectively reflected tree growth patterns. The inclusion of age groups as dummy variables allowed the model to capture the dynamic changes in CW across different growth stages. Furthermore, the incorporation of a nested two-level nonlinear mixed-effects (NLME) model, accounting for random effects from the forest block- and sample plot-level effects, significantly improved the precision and applicability of the final model (R2 = 0.731, RMSE = 0.491). This model quantified both macro- and micro-level effects of region and plot on CW. Our findings showed that the two-level NLME model, incorporating tree age groups, optimally accounted for environmental heterogeneity and tree growth cycles, resulting in the best-fitting statistics. The proposed full growth cycle CW model effectively enhanced the model’s efficiency and predictive accuracy for Cunninghamia lanceolata, providing scientific support for the sustainable management and dynamic monitoring of plantation forests.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Biometrics, Inventory, and Modelling of Growth and Yield)
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Seed Quality and Seedling Production of Sequoia sempervirens, Sequoiadendron giganteum, and Pseudotsuga menziesii
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Carolina Moraes, Marcio Carlos Navroski, Mariane de Oliveira Pereira, Luciana Magda de Oliveira, Ivan Adelke Miranda, Bruno Nascimento, Alessandro Camargo Angelo, Marcos Felipe Nicoletti, Adelar Mantovani and Daniel Pereira da Silva Filho
Forests 2025, 16(2), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020352 (registering DOI) - 15 Feb 2025
Abstract
Given the ecological significance and potential for afforestation and carbon sequestration of these species, this study contributes to optimizing nursery practices for successful regeneration and conservation efforts. Thus, this research assessed the physical and physiological seed quality and seedling production of Sequoia sempervirens
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Given the ecological significance and potential for afforestation and carbon sequestration of these species, this study contributes to optimizing nursery practices for successful regeneration and conservation efforts. Thus, this research assessed the physical and physiological seed quality and seedling production of Sequoia sempervirens, Sequoiadendron giganteum, and Pseudotsuga menziesii. For seed characteristics the following were tested: (I) Tetrazolium at concentrations: 0.0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%; (II) moisture content and thousand-seed weight; (III) in-lab germination; and (IV) the classification of seeds’ viability through the use of a seed blower. Meanwhile, seedling production was tested: (I) five compositions of substrates and (II) doses of a controlled-release fertilizer (14-14-14): 0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0 g L−1, for S. giganteum. The seed evaluations revealed no significant effect of tetrazolium concentrations on determining their viability. The water content results classify all species as orthodox. All species’ seeds were classified as small according to the weight of a thousand seeds. A maximum of 41% germination was observed for both S. sempervirens and S. giganteum, this value was 56% for P. menziesii, attributed to non-viability and emptiness. The seed blower increased germination by more than 20% for S. giganteum and almost 40% for P. menziesii. Seedling production was affected by the substrates, and a dosage of 4.0 g L−1 of the controlled-release fertilizer is recommended for S. giganteum.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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Seasonal Dynamics and Microenvironmental Drivers of Transpiration in Scrub Rhizophora mangle L. Trees from Yucatan
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Gabriela Cerón-Aguilera, Laura Yáñez-Espinosa, Ileana Echevarría-Machado, Rodrigo Méndez-Alonzo, Jorge Herrera-Silveira, Roberth Us-Santamaría, Julio Alberto Salas-Rabaza, Karina Elizabeth González-Muñoz and José Luis Andrade
Forests 2025, 16(2), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020351 (registering DOI) - 15 Feb 2025
Abstract
Scrub mangrove forests, dominated by Rhizophora mangle L., are characterized by high porewater salinity, which might compromise individual sap flow rates (SF) due to seasonal and diurnal microenvironmental variations. We tested the functional, anatomical, and SF responses of 12 individuals to microenvironmental variables
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Scrub mangrove forests, dominated by Rhizophora mangle L., are characterized by high porewater salinity, which might compromise individual sap flow rates (SF) due to seasonal and diurnal microenvironmental variations. We tested the functional, anatomical, and SF responses of 12 individuals to microenvironmental variables such as solar radiation, photosynthetic photon flux, wind speed, evaporative demand, and porewater salinity, measured using an in situ weather station. Measurements were made in the dry and rainy seasons in the Yucatan Peninsula, using Granier heat dissipation sensors, installed on tree branches. During the rainy season, SF was twice as high as that during the dry season (0.22 ± 0.00 L h−1 and 0.11 ± 0.00 L h−1, respectively), despite lower evaporative demand. In both seasons, negative relationships between SF with vapor pressure deficit (VPD; dry τ = −0.54; rainy τ = −0.56) and with photosynthetic photon flux (PPF; dry τ = −0.97; rainy τ = −0.98) were found, indicating a strong hydraulic coupling to atmospheric conditions. Sap flow and transpiration rates of this R. mangle scrub mangrove forest exceeded those of some tropical dry deciduous forests, suggesting adaptations that support water transport in saline environments. The clustered xylem vessels of R. mangle ensure safe sap flow year-round. As an evergreen species, it contributes water to the atmosphere all year-round, underscoring its critical role in the tropical ecohydrological environment.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Relations in Tree Physiology)
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Open AccessArticle
Effect of Different Oak Forest Management Models on Seasonal Variability in Soil Properties at Sites with Igneous and Sedimentary Subsoil
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Jiří Volánek, Pavel Samec, Ladislav Holík, Aleš Bajer and Marie Balková
Forests 2025, 16(2), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020350 (registering DOI) - 15 Feb 2025
Abstract
Traditional forest management models could potentially be used to combat changes in environmental conditions by stimulating soil properties and supporting tree growth. In this study, we compare the effects of different oak (Quercus petraea /Matt./Liebl.) forest models [coppice, coppice-with-standard, stocked coppice (reference)]
[...] Read more.
Traditional forest management models could potentially be used to combat changes in environmental conditions by stimulating soil properties and supporting tree growth. In this study, we compare the effects of different oak (Quercus petraea /Matt./Liebl.) forest models [coppice, coppice-with-standard, stocked coppice (reference)] on seasonal variability in soil properties at upland igneous and sedimentary sites (280–418 m a.s.l.). Soils were sampled at 0–5 and 10–15 cm in 50 × 50 m model and reference plots in January, April, July and October between 2015 and 2019, and soil organic matter, soil respiration, enzyme activity, pH and water-holding capacity were determined. The effects of forest model and seasonality were then compared using time-series analysis, analysis of variance and discriminant analysis. Overall, the models differentiated subsurface soil horizons from the topsoil and their feedback varied between sites. While water-holding capacity increased at the igneous stands, acid phosphomonoesterase activity increased and nitrogen content decreased at the sedimentary site. While the most significant negative influence of the forest model on soil properties was observed at the sedimentary site, the greatest increase in soil organic matter and water holding capacity was registered at the igneous coppice-with-standards site. Consequently, using the appropriate forest management model on different subsoil types could be valuable for improving carbon sequestration and drought resistance.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring and Modelling of Soil Properties in Forest Ecosystems)
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Biological Characteristics of the Scale Insect Matsucoccus sinensis (Hemiptera: Coccoidae), a Pest Damaging the Chinese Red Pine Forests
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Danchun Li, Jinqian Liu, Jing Yang, Hao Qi, Yuan Lin, Wei Lei, Wenyu Zhang, Nehal Shaarawy, Youssef Dewer, Suqin Shang and Zuolin Fu
Forests 2025, 16(2), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020349 (registering DOI) - 15 Feb 2025
Abstract
The Chinese red pine, Pinus tabulaeformis, is one of the most important evergreen conifer trees in China. It is widely planted in southern Gansu Province and is commonly used for garden trees, hedges, windbreaks, and soil and water conservation. However, Matsucoccus sinensis
[...] Read more.
The Chinese red pine, Pinus tabulaeformis, is one of the most important evergreen conifer trees in China. It is widely planted in southern Gansu Province and is commonly used for garden trees, hedges, windbreaks, and soil and water conservation. However, Matsucoccus sinensis, a scale insect, has become a major pest of the P. tabulaeformis forests, and its life history and biological characteristics remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the biological characteristics, male cocoon emergence, adult mating period, and egg developmental period of M. sinensis, providing valuable insights for its prevention and control. We conducted continuous observation of the different developmental stages of M. sinensis, both in the laboratory and in P. tabulaeformis fields. The least squares method was used to calculate the egg developmental period of M. sinensis. Our results showed that the scale insect is a monophagous species with one generation occurring per year. The second-instar nymphs overwinter on the needles in the medium shell and reproduce sexually, without parthenogenesis. Male M. sinensis adults reach their peak appearance at the end of April in the study region. The peak emergence of male cocoons occurred between 2:00 AM and 4:00 AM, and the adult mating period lasted from 11:00 AM to 13:00 PM. The larvae of M. sinensis attack the needles of P. tabulaeformis. The nymphs crawled and moved to the inner base of the needles, with first- to third-instar nymphs fixing themselves to the needles to feed. The effective accumulated temperature and starting temperatures for the development of M. sinensis eggs were found to be 86.1 °C and 3.5 °C, respectively. Overall, understanding the biology and life history of M. sinensis is essential for identifying key developmental stages and determining the optimal timing for pest control, ultimately aiding in the development of targeted management strategies to protect P. tabulaeformis forests from this emerging pest.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest and Urban Tree Pathology and Entomology: Diagnosis, Biology, Ecology and Control)
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Open AccessReview
Balancing Non-Timber Services with Biomass Production via Sustainable Forest Management: A Review of Conflicting Demands and Suggested Approaches
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Diogenis A. Kiziridis, Eleni Salonikidou, Nikoleta Eleftheriadou and Dimitrios Fotakis
Forests 2025, 16(2), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020348 (registering DOI) - 15 Feb 2025
Abstract
Forest management can be implemented for various demands, including biomass or energy production, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and ecosystem services, all related to forest utilisation and sustainability. However, these demands can conflict, with biomass production potentially hindering biodiversity conservation, and a focus on
[...] Read more.
Forest management can be implemented for various demands, including biomass or energy production, biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and ecosystem services, all related to forest utilisation and sustainability. However, these demands can conflict, with biomass production potentially hindering biodiversity conservation, and a focus on climate mitigation or ecosystem services possibly limiting wood production. The aim of the present study was to review the literature related to these conflicts and identify best practices for balancing demands in the context of policies and management tools in the European Union (EU). We found that while EU policies promote sustainability, there is insufficient integration between the biodiversity, carbon storage, and biomass production objectives. We additionally found that by integrating datasets and models, such as by interconnecting models for carbon dynamics, biodiversity, and biomass production, predictions and hence workarounds for addressing these competing demands can be more accurate. Based on these findings, we recommend adopting a more holistic approach in forest management strategies, considering both ecological and socio-economic factors for long-term sustainability. This review provides insights for policymakers, forest managers, and other stakeholders, for navigating the trade-offs between different forest ecosystem services, and for supporting informed decision-making in the development of effective forest policies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic and Policy Analysis in Sustainable Forest Management)
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Mapping Forest Aboveground Biomass Using Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data Based on the XGBoost Algorithm
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Dejun Wang, Yanqiu Xing, Anmin Fu, Jie Tang, Xiaoqing Chang, Hong Yang, Shuhang Yang and Yuanxin Li
Forests 2025, 16(2), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020347 (registering DOI) - 15 Feb 2025
Abstract
Aboveground biomass (AGB) serves as an important indicator for assessing the productivity of forest ecosystems and exploring the global carbon cycle. However, accurate estimation of forest AGB remains a significant challenge, especially when integrating multi-source remote sensing data, and the effects of different
[...] Read more.
Aboveground biomass (AGB) serves as an important indicator for assessing the productivity of forest ecosystems and exploring the global carbon cycle. However, accurate estimation of forest AGB remains a significant challenge, especially when integrating multi-source remote sensing data, and the effects of different feature combinations for AGB estimation results are unclear. In this study, we proposed a method for estimating forest AGB by combining Gao Fen 7 (GF-7) stereo imagery with data from Sentinel-1 (S1), Sentinel-2 (S2), and the Advanced Land Observing Satellite digital elevation model (ALOS DEM), and field survey data. The continuous tree height (TH) feature was derived using GF-7 stereo imagery and the ALOS DEM. Spectral features were extracted from S1 and S2, and topographic features were extracted from the ALOS DEM. Using these features, 15 feature combinations were constructed. The recursive feature elimination (RFE) method was used to optimize each feature combination, which was then input into the extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) model for AGB estimation. Different combinations of features used to estimate forest AGB were compared. The best model was selected for mapping AGB distribution at 30 m resolution. The outcomes showed that the forest AGB model was composed of 13 features, including TH, topographic, and spectral features extracted from S1 and S2 data. This model achieved the best prediction performance, with a determination coefficient (R2) of 0.71 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 18.11 Mg/ha. TH was found to be the most important predictive feature, followed by S2 optical features, topographic features, and S1 radar features.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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Exploring Thematic Evolution in Interdisciplinary Forest Fire Prediction Research: A Latent Dirichlet Allocation–Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers Model Analysis
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Shuo Zhang
Forests 2025, 16(2), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020346 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Facing the severe global wildfire challenge and the need for advanced prediction, this study analysed the evolving research in forest fire prediction using an LDA-BERT similarity model. Due to climate change, human activities, and natural factors, forest fires threaten ecosystems, society, and the
[...] Read more.
Facing the severe global wildfire challenge and the need for advanced prediction, this study analysed the evolving research in forest fire prediction using an LDA-BERT similarity model. Due to climate change, human activities, and natural factors, forest fires threaten ecosystems, society, and the climate system. The vast existing literature on forest fire prediction makes it challenging to identify research themes manually. The proposed LDA-BERT model combines LDA and BERT. LDA was used for topic mining, determining the optimal number of topics by calculating the semantic consistency. BERT was employed in word vector training, using topic word probabilities as weights. The cosine similarity algorithm and normalisation were used to measure the topic similarity. Through empirical research on 13,552 publications from 1980–2023 retrieved from the Web of Science database, several key themes were identified, such as “wildfire risk management”, “vegetation and habitat changes”, and “climate change and forests”. Research trends show a shift from macro-level to micro-level studies, with modern technologies becoming a focus. Multidimensional scaling revealed a hierarchical theme distribution, with themes closely related to forest fires being dominant. This research offers valuable insights for the scientific community and policymakers, facilitating understanding these changes and contributing to wildfire mitigation. However, it has limitations like subjectivity in theme-representative word selection and needs further improvement in threshold setting and model performance evaluation. Future research can optimise these aspects and integrate emerging technologies to enhance forest fire prediction research.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Fires Prediction and Detection—2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Estimation of the Optimal Seed Production Management Cycle of a Miniature Seed Orchard, Based on the Crown Recovery Process and Spatiotemporal Light Variation After Pruning
by
Michinari Matsushita
Forests 2025, 16(2), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020345 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Seed orchards play important roles in supplying good seeds. Miniature orchards have the advantages of reducing management areas, but rapid crown development will decrease light intensity and seed production. Block-rotation cycles within an orchard need to be evaluated to optimize total seed production
[...] Read more.
Seed orchards play important roles in supplying good seeds. Miniature orchards have the advantages of reducing management areas, but rapid crown development will decrease light intensity and seed production. Block-rotation cycles within an orchard need to be evaluated to optimize total seed production per unit time and area. The development of tree height and primary branches, as well as spatial light variation over the years after pruning and defoliation manipulation were evaluated in a miniature orchard of Chamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb. et Zucc.) Endl. set on the Pacific side of Japan. Just two years after manipulation, the branches of the upper-crown parts had grown so long that they were touching each other, and the light environments of the lower-crown parts had become drastically darker. Next, based on the crown development and light variation and the relationship between cone production and light intensity, we performed a simulation of total cone production over the years in a hypothetical orchard composed of multiple blocks. Then, the simulated total cone production was compared between the block-rotation cycles, where crown management was performed every three or four years. Compared to the three-year block rotation, the distribution of within-tree cone production for the four-year block rotation was more biased towards only the upper crown, since the lower crown became suddenly darker. It was estimated that cone production for the entire tree and the entire seed orchard would be lower than in the three-year block rotation. The approach and findings of this study will be useful for improving seed orchard management.
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(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Wildfire Impacts Pinus tabulaeformis Forests on Soil Properties, Actinobacteriota, and Enzyme Activity in Northern China: Direct Effects or Mutual Interactions?
by
Guanhong Liu, Bingyi Li, Jia Li, Ze Gu and Xiaodong Liu
Forests 2025, 16(2), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020344 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Wildfires are significant disturbances that reshape soil ecosystems, impacting soil properties, microbial communities, and enzyme activities. In Pinus tabulaeformis forests in northern China, the effects of wildfire on soil health, particularly on Actinobacteriota and enzymatic functions, remain poorly understood. This study investigates both
[...] Read more.
Wildfires are significant disturbances that reshape soil ecosystems, impacting soil properties, microbial communities, and enzyme activities. In Pinus tabulaeformis forests in northern China, the effects of wildfire on soil health, particularly on Actinobacteriota and enzymatic functions, remain poorly understood. This study investigates both the direct and indirect effects of fire severity on these factors and examines how fire-induced changes in soil properties mediate microbial and enzymatic responses. Our findings show that wildfire significantly alters soil chemical properties, including an increase in soil pH and a reduction in organic carbon and water content, particularly under high fire severities. These changes directly impact microbial communities, with Actinobacteriota showing resilience under light and moderate fire intensities but declining under high severity, especially in subsoil layers. Soil enzymes, such as urease and protease, played a crucial role in mitigating the negative impacts of fire on nutrient cycling. Their activity promoted nutrient availability, aiding ecosystem recovery, even as fire intensity reduced overall soil fertility. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) further revealed that the relationships between fire severity, soil properties, Actinobacteriota, and enzyme activity are shaped by both direct thermal effects and complex indirect interactions mediated by changes in soil moisture and nutrient levels. This study underscores the importance of considering both direct fire effects and the mutual interactions between soil properties, microbial communities, and enzymatic activities in post-fire recovery. The findings highlight that while high-severity fires disrupt soil health and microbial dynamics, soil enzymes can help regulate these impacts by enhancing nutrient cycling and supporting ecosystem stability. These insights contribute to a better understanding of wildfire-induced soil degradation and provide actionable strategies for enhancing post-fire soil restoration and microbial management in fire-prone ecosystems.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Ecology and Management in Forest—2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Effects of Oasis Evolution on Soil Microbial Community Structure and Function in Arid Areas
by
Junhu Tang, Haiqiang Zhu, Xinyu Ma, Zhaolong Ding, Yan Luo, Xiaofei Wang, Rui Gao and Lu Gong
Forests 2025, 16(2), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020343 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Soil is an important link in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and other elements. The soil environment, especially the soil water, nutrients, and salts, undergoes profound changes in the process of oasis evolution. As a key component of the soil ecosystem in an
[...] Read more.
Soil is an important link in the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, and other elements. The soil environment, especially the soil water, nutrients, and salts, undergoes profound changes in the process of oasis evolution. As a key component of the soil ecosystem in an oasis, soil microbial communities are strongly influenced by environmental factors and have feedback effects on them. However, the response of the soil microbial community structure and function to the process of oasis evolution and its mechanism is still unclear. In this study, the effects of different land-use types, including cotton field (CF), orchard (OR), forest land (FL), waste land (WL) and sand land (SL), on the soil microbial community structure and function were analyzed by metagenomic sequencing. The results showed that the cotton field had the highest soil water content, showing a significant difference compared with the other land-use types. Forest land had the highest soil pH, also showing a significant difference compared with the other land-use types. Among the land-use types with different degrees of oasis evolution, Pseudarthrobacter and Actinomycetota were the dominant phyla, with higher relative abundance. The main metabolic pathways in the cotton field, sand land, and waste land were L-glutamine biosynthesis, ornithine cycle, and nitrate reduction V. The soil total salt, moisture content, pH, and available potassium were the important soil physicochemical factors influencing soil microorganisms. This study will deepen our understanding of the role of soil microbial communities in the process of oasis evolution and provide a scientific basis for ecological restoration and desertification control in arid areas.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elemental Cycling in Forest Soils)
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Temperature-Dependent Soil Organic Carbon Turnover in Taiwan’s Forests Revealed by Stable Carbon Isotope Analysis
by
Li-Wei Zheng, Meng Wu, Qianhui Li, Zhenzhen Zheng, Zhen Huang, Tsung-Yu Lee and Shuh-Ji Kao
Forests 2025, 16(2), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020342 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
High-standing islands, such as Taiwan, offer unique opportunities to study soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics due to their steep terrains, rapid erosion, and strong climatic gradients. In this study, we investigated 54 forest soil profiles across northern, central, and southern Taiwan to assess
[...] Read more.
High-standing islands, such as Taiwan, offer unique opportunities to study soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics due to their steep terrains, rapid erosion, and strong climatic gradients. In this study, we investigated 54 forest soil profiles across northern, central, and southern Taiwan to assess SOC inventories and turnover using stable carbon isotope (δ13C) analyses. We applied Rayleigh fractionation modeling to vertical δ13C enrichment patterns and derived the parameter β, which serves as a proxy for SOC turnover rates. Our findings reveal that SOC stocks increase notably with elevation, aligning with lower temperatures and reduced decomposition rates at higher altitudes. Conversely, mean annual precipitation (MAP) did not show a straightforward relationship with SOC stocks or β, highlighting the moderating effects of soil drainage, topography, and local hydrological conditions. Intriguingly, higher soil nitrogen levels were associated with a negative correlation to ln(β), underscoring the complex interplay between nutrient availability and SOC decomposition. Overall, temperature emerges as the dominant factor governing SOC turnover, indicating that ongoing and future warming could accelerate SOC losses, especially in cooler, high-elevation zones currently acting as stable carbon reservoirs. These insights underscore the need for models and management practices that account for intricate temperature, moisture, and nutrient controls on SOC stability, as well as the value of stable isotopic tools for evaluating soil carbon dynamics in mountainous environments.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Carbon Storage in Forests: Dynamics and Management)
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Availability, Accessibility, or Visibility? A Study of the Influencing Factors of Greenspace Exposure Behavior in Fuzhou Urban Parks
by
Na Liu, Mengbo Wu, Jingjing Wang, Jingyi Wei, Xiong Yao and Zhipeng Zhu
Forests 2025, 16(2), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020341 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Rapid urbanization has led to increasingly serious problems, such as the heat island effect and environmental pollution, which seriously endanger people’s health. Greenspace exposure behavior, that is, the way and characteristics of people’s contact with greenspace (including frequency and duration of stay), is
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Rapid urbanization has led to increasingly serious problems, such as the heat island effect and environmental pollution, which seriously endanger people’s health. Greenspace exposure behavior, that is, the way and characteristics of people’s contact with greenspace (including frequency and duration of stay), is the key to exerting the health benefits of greenspace. There is little research on the factors influencing greenspace exposure behavior, which cannot reveal the mechanism of maintaining people’s physical and mental health by promoting greenspace exposure behavior. Therefore, using typical urban parks in Fuzhou as a case study, indicators of greenspace availability, accessibility, and visibility were identified from objective park characteristics and subjective crowd evaluation. The factors influencing greenspace exposure behavior were analyzed using bivariate correlation tests and multivariate linear regression analysis. The results indicated that, among objective park characteristics, the per capita green park area negatively impacted greenspace exposure behavior, while the green view index positively influenced it (p < 0.05). Regarding subjective crowd evaluation, subjective indicators positively impacted greenspace exposure behavior except for the condition of activity areas. In addition, subjective factors, especially subjective visibility indicators, are more predictive of greenspace exposure behavior than objective factors. The theoretical contribution of this study lies in further refining the research framework for quantifying and evaluating park greenspace exposure, and enriching the theoretical connotation of research on park greenspace exposure behavior. The research results suggested park greening strategies for the relevant departments, enhanced the greenspace exposure behavior, and improved people’s physical and mental health.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Biophilic Cities and Communities: Human-Environment Interaction and Sustainable Governance)
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Open AccessArticle
Determining the Accuracy of Structural Parameters Measured from LiDAR Images in Lowland Oak Forests
by
Jelena Kolić, Renata Pernar, Ante Seletković and Mario Ančić
Forests 2025, 16(2), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020340 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Data on forests (e.g., height, diameter at breast height and volume) are increasingly being collected using remote sensing methods, leading to improved forest inventories. At present, a popular method for data collection is the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with LiDAR
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Data on forests (e.g., height, diameter at breast height and volume) are increasingly being collected using remote sensing methods, leading to improved forest inventories. At present, a popular method for data collection is the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with LiDAR sensors, which allow for a more detailed assessment of structural parameters in both space and time, facilitating the practical application of more complex forest management systems. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to measure the structural elements of stands (e.g., volume, basal area, tree count, height, diameter at breast height, crown width, and area) from LiDAR images and determine the accuracy of the obtained results. The research was conducted in a 5500 ha area containing some of the most valuable forests in Croatia, namely, lowland oak forests. The results of this study show that there are no statistically significant differences between the diameters and heights measured in the field and those from LiDAR images and, consequently, no difference in the calculated volume. This study also concluded that the use of unmanned aerial vehicles with various sensors can significantly reduce fieldwork while achieving the same accuracy in the results, thus leading to substantial savings in both time and money.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Active and Passive Remote Sensors in the Forest Inventory)
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Open AccessArticle
Incubating Pallet Wood Samples Does Not Enhance Detection of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
by
Maria L. Inácio, Joana Barata, Ana Paula Ramos, Ana Fundurulic, David Pires and Luís Bonifácio
Forests 2025, 16(2), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020339 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Among the most concerning threats impacting global forest ecosystems is the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner and Buhrer, 1934) Nickle, 1970), the causal agent of pine wilt disease. In Europe, effective management of this pest requires comprehensive regulatory and monitoring strategies, including
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Among the most concerning threats impacting global forest ecosystems is the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Steiner and Buhrer, 1934) Nickle, 1970), the causal agent of pine wilt disease. In Europe, effective management of this pest requires comprehensive regulatory and monitoring strategies, including the annual collection of thousands of wood samples from symptomatic trees and their surroundings, inspection of wood packaging materials like pallets, and the trapping of the insect vector, Monochamus spp., through national networks. Insects and wood samples are sent to official laboratories, where the latter are sometimes incubated at 25 °C for 15 days, aiming to maximize the probability of the detection of the nematode. This study expected to elucidate the effect of the wood incubation process on the detection of B. xylophilus by analyzing wood samples from pallets and green wood obtained from pine stands, both harbouring nematodes in adult and juvenile stages. Additionally, the investigation sought to assess how the presence of fungi, which serve as a food source for the nematodes, enables B. xylophilus to persist in treated pallet wood that is colonized by these fungi. The results indicated that the incubation period is unnecessary for detecting B. xylophilus in pallets, except when the wood is heavily colonized by fungi providing suitable nutrition for the nematodes, although such occurrences are expected to be rare. Furthermore, this study found no significant differences in population growth between the two stages of the nematode’s life cycle. This suggests that second-stage juveniles present in wood samples, despite not undergoing sexual differentiation, do not hinder the reproductive capacity of B. xylophilus. The risk of a potential infestation in treated pallet wood is unlikely if the treatment has been performed correctly, and the incubation does not contribute to increasing the probability of detecting the PWN. Conversely, for samples obtained from trees, the incubation period significantly enhances nematode detection.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Pine Wilt Disease)
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Potential Distribution and Response of Camphora longepaniculata Gamble (Lauraceae) to Climate Change in China
by
Yanzhao Zhu, Hanzhi Zhao, Yidi Liu, Minghui Zhu, Zitong Wan, Yujie Yan, Xiaoying Wang, Ya Xiang, Shanshan Gao, Chenlong Jiang, Yingying Zhang and Gang Zhao
Forests 2025, 16(2), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020338 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Camphora longepaniculata is an endangered evergreen tree listed as National Class II Protected Tree Species in China, highly valued for its medicinal and economic importance. Currently, research on this species has primarily focused on its pharmaceutical properties, while its potential distribution and responses
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Camphora longepaniculata is an endangered evergreen tree listed as National Class II Protected Tree Species in China, highly valued for its medicinal and economic importance. Currently, research on this species has primarily focused on its pharmaceutical properties, while its potential distribution and responses to climate change remain insufficiently explored. In this study, 36 valid occurrence records and 11 environmental variables were utilized to predict its potential distribution and assess its response to future climate scenarios. The MaxEnt model revealed that the current distribution of C. longepaniculata largely aligns with its predicted suitable habitats, with the primary range located in Sichuan Province. Furthermore, this model identified the highly suitable habitats to be predominantly concentrated in Sichuan and Shaanxi Provinces under climate change. Among the environmental variables, annual precipitation (bio12), minimum temperature of the coldest month (bio6), and elevation (dem) were the most influential, collectively contributing over 70% to the model’s predictive accuracy. Future climate projections compared to the current distribution suggest a northward expansion of suitable habitats for C. longepaniculata, although Sichuan Province is predicted to remain the core habitat under future scenarios. Kernel density analysis of occurrence points indicated that the largest concentration of distribution points is near the Sichuan Basin, reinforcing the importance of this region as a stronghold for the species. Based on the results of potential distribution and kernel density analysis, in situ conservation, artificial cultivation, and the establishment of wild protected areas and local germplasm banks are recommended for stable, suitable habitats, such as Sichuan Province and parts of Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces. This study not only sheds light on the potential geographical distribution of C. longepaniculata and its response to climate change but also provides a scientific basis for the development of targeted conservation strategies for this species.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Responses of Trees and Forests to Climate Change)
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Stage- and Tissue-Specific Expression of MET1 and CMT2 Genes During Germination in Abies koreana E.H.Wilson
by
Sun-cheon Hong, Koeun Jeon and Kyu-suk Kang
Forests 2025, 16(2), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020337 - 14 Feb 2025
Abstract
Abies koreana E.H.Wilson (Korean fir), an endangered high-altitude conifer native to South Korea, is facing severe population decline due to climate change and low germination rates. While ecological factors have been studied, the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms underlying its seed development are still
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Abies koreana E.H.Wilson (Korean fir), an endangered high-altitude conifer native to South Korea, is facing severe population decline due to climate change and low germination rates. While ecological factors have been studied, the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms underlying its seed development are still poorly understood. DNA methylation, regulated by MET1 and CMT2, plays a critical role in the stability of gene expression during seed development. This study investigates the expression patterns of MET1 and CMT2 across 12 developmental stages, from pre-germination to post-germination, with a focus on shoot and root tissues. RNA-seq data were analyzed to identify MET1 and CMT2, and expression patterns were validated using RT-qPCR. MET1 showed high sequence conservation with conifers such as Pinus sylvestris, indicating potential conservation of CG methylation mechanisms among conifer species. CMT2 showed lower sequence conservation across species, indicating reduced evolutionary conservation compared to MET1. Tissue-specific analysis showed MET1 being predominantly active in shoots during cotyledon development, while CMT2 was upregulated in roots at later stages. These findings highlight the dynamic and tissue-specific roles of DNA methylation in the seed development of A. koreana, contributing to a better understanding of the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms involved in its germination and early growth.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Tree Breeding, Testing, and Selection)
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A Bibliometric Analysis of Research on the Sources and Formation Processes of Forest Soil Organic Matter Under Climate Change
by
Zhentao Shen, Kai Yue, Yan Peng, Hui Zhang, Cuihuan Li and Yan Li
Forests 2025, 16(2), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020336 - 13 Feb 2025
Abstract
Forest soil organic matter (SOM) is a critical component of forest ecosystems and plays a vital role in the global carbon (C) cycle. Global climate change profoundly affects forest SOM dynamics, particularly its sources and formation processes, which are crucial initial stages of
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Forest soil organic matter (SOM) is a critical component of forest ecosystems and plays a vital role in the global carbon (C) cycle. Global climate change profoundly affects forest SOM dynamics, particularly its sources and formation processes, which are crucial initial stages of the forest soil C cycle. Therefore, understanding these processes and the impacts of climate change is essential for developing effective forest management strategies and climate policies. In this study, VOSviewer 1.6.18 was used to conduct a bibliometric analysis of research published from 1975 to 2024, retrieved from the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection database, focusing on the sources and formation processes of forest SOM under climate change. The analysis covers annual publication trends, author co-occurrence networks, publication distributions by country and region, keyword clustering, and evolving keyword trends, integrating both quantitative results and a literature review to provide an understanding of the research progress in the field. The results highlight continuous growth in research publications, which can be categorized into four stages: initial emergence, sustained exploration, rapid development, and deep expansion. A solid theoretical foundation and good research strength have been established, driven by prominent academic groups led by researchers such as Jari Liski, as well as leading countries, including the United States and China. The research progress is divided into four topics: the sources of forest SOM; the formation processes of forest SOM; the impacts of climate change; and measurement methods and model-based analysis techniques, which mainly elaborate upon plant-, microbial-, and soil fauna-derived aspects. Research hotspots have evolved from basic C and nitrogen (N) cycles to in-depth studies involving microbial mechanisms and multiparameter climate change interactive effects. This study provides an overview of the research progress and hotspots in the field, offering basic knowledge and theoretical support for potential future research and climate change mitigation strategies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Carbon and Nutrient Cycling in the Forest Ecosystems)

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