Microplastics, Volume 5, Issue 2 (June 2026) – 71 articles

Microplastics (MPs; <5 mm) represent a growing environmental concern that increasingly challenges environmental monitoring, governance, and evidence-based decision-making. This review critically examines how current scientific understanding of microplastic sources, classification, occurrence, and environmental behavior can support environmental governance. MPs are classified as primary and secondary particles; however, persistent inconsistencies in size definitions, shape descriptors, and polymer identification limit the comparability of monitoring data and constrain the development of coherent regulatory frameworks. Evidence on the occurrence of MPs in surface waters and sediments highlights widespread contamination and pronounced spatial variability, raising challenges for risk assessment and policy harmonization across regions. Key transport pathways, including atmospheric deposition, terrestrial runoff, and riverine fluxes, are analyzed to illustrate how local emissions translate into large-scale environmental impacts. Rivers emerge as key components linking sources to receptors, offering relevant points for policy intervention and management measures. The review evaluates current policy responses to microplastic pollution, identifying significant gaps in standardized monitoring, data integration, and risk assessment approaches. It emphasizes the need for stronger alignment between scientific outputs and policy requirements, including the co-production of knowledge involving scientists, regulators, and stakeholders. By outlining pathways through which scientific evidence can inform regulatory design and environmental management, this study provides actionable insights for improving policy effectiveness. Advancing harmonized methodologies and integrating science into decision-making processes are essential steps toward mitigating microplastic pollution and supporting sustainable environmental governance. Full article

The seasonal distribution of microplastics, as a representative case, was examined in Mytilus galloprovincialis from a pilot farm in the Gulf of Naples (Italy). The influence of marine parameters on microplastic uptake rate was assessed. A destructive patented method was used, and two microplastic size classes (<10 µm; >10 µm) were defined. Estimated Daily Intakes were calculated for different age groups. Results showed a significant abundance of small microplastics (9683.92 ± 6911 vs. 41.85 ± 13.98). In mussels, the highest levels (19,738.13 ± 3406.04) were detected in summer, and the lowest in autumn (4145.56 ± 2364.93). Summer variations in seawater temperature, oxygen, and pH were significantly different from those in winter and spring. High exposure levels, mainly of microplastics < 10 µm, were observed in the elderly (318.08 ± 227.00), followed by adults (225.29 ± 160.78) and children (212.29 ± 151.50), with the lowest in teenagers (127.51 ± 91.00). Despite the high variability of factors influencing mussel filtration and microplastic uptake, the study provided data on the seasonal microplastic distribution pattern and a size-based screening exposure level. Results highlight the importance of geographic and seasonal conditions, and particle size in assessing microplastic exposure through farmed mussel consumption. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as persistent environmental contaminants due to their persistence, widespread distribution, and potential risks to the environment and human health. This review focuses on the sources of MPs, their potential environmental risks, and human impacts, as documented in the recent literature from 2020 to 2026. Recent studies focusing on pathways, environmental weathering, and toxicity were evaluated and synthesized into the analysis. Previous studies have demonstrated that microplastics are transported across and between environmental compartments. Environmental degradation, driven by ultraviolet radiation, mechanical fragmentation, and oxidation, can alter microplastics’ surface characteristics, which may affect microplastic mobility, reactivity, and the solid-state adsorption of contaminants. Human exposure occurs primarily through ingestion and inhalation, with dermal and occupational exposure also contributing under certain conditions. Emerging evidence from in vitro, animal, and human tissue studies suggests that smaller particles, particularly nanoplastics, may contribute to oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular injury; however, important uncertainties remain regarding environmentally realistic exposure levels, long-term health outcomes, and the extrapolation of experimental findings to real-world human health risk. Overall, the current literature highlights the need for standardized methodologies, improved integration of environmental monitoring and exposure assessment, and stronger evidence to support risk assessment and policy development. Full article

The pyrolysis of polypropylene (PP) microplastics offers a potential route to convert plastic waste into fuel-range hydrocarbon mixtures and chemical feedstocks. However, the elementary radical pathways underlying the formation of medium-chain hydrocarbon fragments remain insufficiently resolved. In this study, a representative isotactic PP oligomer model (C₄₅H₉₂) was evaluated using a comparative density functional theory (DFT) framework. The main mechanistic analysis was based on M06-2X, ωB97X-D, and M11 calculations combined with the def2-TZVP basis set, whereas LANL2DZ was retained only as a lower-cost comparative level during reaction-pathway exploration. Thermochemical profiles were evaluated over a temperature range of 298–923 K. Three selected pathways involving mid-chain homolytic cleavage, intramolecular hydrogen transfer (backbiting), radical rearrangement, and β-scission were examined. Within the selected reaction set, Route 1 exhibited a comparatively more favorable thermochemical profile than Routes 2 and 3 and provided a mechanistically plausible sequence toward medium-chain hydrocarbon fragments. The −TΔS contribution strongly influenced the calculated Gibbs free-energy profiles because fragmentation increases the number of molecular species under the ideal-gas thermochemical approximation. Accordingly, the ΔG values were interpreted comparatively and were not treated as direct evidence of spontaneous fragmentation under condensed-phase pyrolysis conditions or as quantitative predictions of experimental product selectivity. Differences among the evaluated functionals further indicate that the relative description of radical intermediates and transition-state regions is method-dependent. These results provide a molecular-level framework for future studies integrating quantum-chemical calculations, microkinetic modeling, and experimental product characterization. Full article

Background: Soil mulching is a widely adopted agricultural practice known to regulate soil microclimate and enhance crop productivity; yet the biochemical mechanisms by which intact plastic and biodegradable mulch films influence soil nitrogen (N) cycling at the metabolic pathway level remain largely unexplored. Understanding these nitrogen transformation pathways is critical for assessing the long-term impacts of mulching materials on soil microbial communities, soil health, and sustainable agricultural management. This study focuses on the biochemical effects of intact mulch film application on soil N metabolism. Methods: N cycle-related soil metabolites were profiled using GC–MS/MS and MALDI TOF/TOF MS and then integrated with multivariate statistical modelling and pathway-level metabolic network perturbation analysis to compare conventional plastic and biodegradable plastic mulch film application against unmulched controls. Results: A panel of 62 KEGG-annotated N-cycle metabolites was profiled, and material-dependent metabolome separation was confirmed by OPLS-DA (R²Y 0.893–0.956; Q² 0.546–0.786). Both mulching materials significantly perturbed soil N-metabolite pools but differed in terms of pathway identity, magnitude, and directionality. Conventional plastic mulching caused the greatest disruption—near-complete suppression of N-storage and stress-adaptation pools (NES of −1.16; impact score of 10.01) and severe impairment of aspartate-centred metabolism—with L-aspartate identified as a critical stoichiometric hub. Biodegradable mulching material imposed a distinct profile dominated by inhibition of branched-chain amino acid catabolism and lysine degradation, with L-pipecolate as a treatment-specific critical impact node. Conclusions: These findings support that mulching material choice is a primary determinant of soil N-cycling biochemistry. The observed metabolite-level perturbations are suggestive of potential consequences for nitrogen retention. Though this inference is based on metabolite pool size differences and network topology metrics rather than directly measured process rates, it should therefore be interpreted with appropriate caution. Full article

Microplastic (MP) contamination is an emerging threat to aquatic ecosystems. However, species-specific bioaccumulation patterns across trophic guilds in tropical river ecosystems remain scarcely understood. This study assessed the occurrence, organ-level distribution, polymer composition, and ecological risk of MPs in 220 fish representing 12 species, spanning across multiple trophic guilds, sampled from four sites along a pollution gradient of the river Yamuna, India. MPs were detected in all examined species, confirming extensive distribution across the river ecosystem. A total 1678 MPs were recovered, with significantly higher abundance in fish from the highly urban Delhi stretch than in those from upstream regions (Kruskal–Wallis, H = 11.03, p = 0.011). The highest species-specific MP load was recorded in omnivorous Oreochromis niloticus from Sonia Vihar (436 MPs), whereas the carnivorous species Xenentodon cancila exhibited the lowest accumulation (37 MPs). Surface- and mid-water herbivores and omnivores accumulated more MPs than benthic carnivores and detritivores. Nonetheless, spatial pollution gradients exerted a stronger influence on MP accumulation, compared to trophic guilds. The gastrointestinal tract exhibited the highest MP abundance (751 MP particles), followed by gills (605) and muscle tissues (322), confirming ingestion as primary uptake route, and suggesting possible tissue translocation. Fibers dominated in the assemblage (77.8%), while transparent (44%) and blue (19.5%) were most abundant colors. ATR–FTIR analysis confirmed 10 diverse polymers, with polyethylene (≈24%) and polypropylene (≈21%) together accounting for nearly half of the identified particles. The Polymer Hazard Index analysis classified the recovered MP mix as Category IV (high ecological hazard). These findings identify the Delhi stretch of the Yamuna as a high MP contamination zone and highlight the combined influence of urban pollution and fish ecology on MP bioaccumulation. Full article

Microplastic contamination in coral reef environments is increasingly recognized as a global concern; however, the extent to which polymer composition can help distinguish contamination sources and transport-related processes remains poorly understood. In this study, we assessed the abundance, composition, and diversity of microplastics (20–300 µm) across multiple reef systems in the Cuban archipelago using high-resolution Laser Direct Infrared (LDIR) spectroscopic analysis. Microplastic abundance varied substantially among sites, with a median concentration of 66 particles L⁻¹ (IQR: 45–115 particles L⁻¹), ranging from 8 to 218 particles L⁻¹. A total of 11 polymer types were identified, with polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyamide (PA) dominating the assemblages and accounting for approximately 77% of detected particles. While these polymers were consistently observed across all sites, suggesting a pervasive regional background signal, highly impacted reefs exhibited more heterogeneous polymer profiles, including increased contributions of polyurethane (PU), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), consistent with localized anthropogenic influence. Multivariate analysis revealed moderate compositional structuring among reef sites and suggested broad differences in polymer assemblages associated with contrasting contamination settings. Notably, some reefs exhibited elevated microplastic abundances while remaining dominated by common polymers, indicating a partial decoupling between contamination levels and polymer-specific signatures. This pattern is consistent with the influence of regional transport and mixing processes across the Caribbean basin, potentially including circulation associated with the Yucatán Channel, although hydrodynamic processes were not directly assessed in this study. Overall, the findings highlight the value of polymer-resolved analysis for improving interpretation of microplastic contamination patterns in coral reef environments. The integration of polymer composition with abundance and diversity metrics provides a useful framework for distinguishing between localized contamination signals and broader regional background influences. This study represents a regional baseline assessment of small microplastics in Caribbean coral reef systems using high-resolution spectroscopic characterization. Full article

Background/Objectives: Tire (or tyre) wear particles (TWPs), originating from road traffic, have been recognized as a significant emerging contaminant for terrestrial ecosystems. The aim of this study is to attempt a critical review of the existing articles, to identify trends and directions in research, highlight any knowledge gaps, limitations and drawbacks, and develop respective proposals and recommendations. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the PubMed and Web of Science databases for the period 2020–2025 according to PRISMA-based protocols. Results: The final studies were methodically grouped into specific representative themes. Conclusions: This study focuses on the factors affecting the emissions of TWPs, their size distribution, processes that affect their environmental fate and methodological approaches for characterization/determination of TWPs. This article also explores the occurrence and toxicity of TWPs in the terrestrial environment, as well as the management approaches and policies in order to minimize their impact. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) are routinely detected throughout wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), yet current treatment trains were not designed specifically to remove them. This study quantified and characterized visually identified MPs in influent and effluent waters from seven urban WWTPs in Andalusia (southern Spain) during a six-month monitoring period (July–December 2020). The targeted analytical size range was 45–5000 µm, and a subset of particles was further characterized by FTIR. MPs were detected in all sampling campaigns. Concentrations ranged from 6 to 78 items/L in influent and from 12 to 65 items/L in effluent. Fibers were the dominant morphology, and the 100–500 µm size class was the most represented fraction. Among the subset analyzed by FTIR, PA, PP, PVC and LDPE were the most frequent polymer assignments, with PA predominating in the fiber-rich fraction. However, because influent and effluent 24 h time-composite samples were not hydraulic retention time (HRT)-paired and FTIR interpretation was based on a selected subset of particles, the dataset is best interpreted as describing spatiotemporal variability during the study period rather than robust process-specific removal efficiency. Overall, the results support WWTPs as an ongoing pathway for MP release to receiving environments. Full article

In recent decades, plastic consumption has risen across various industries and everyday products, leading to greater plastic use and the generation of waste, which results in the leaching of micro- and nanoplastics into the environment. This review summarizes recent analytical methods for the detection of nanoplastics (NPs) in several marine matrices, divided into three main stages: extraction, separation, and identification. The literature reviewed indicates that chemical and enzymatic digestion are the most commonly used procedures for the extraction step. For the separation step, flotation, filtration, and centrifugation are the most used techniques. Finally, two groups of techniques may be used for the identification step. The first category consists of methods used for qualitative identification, with spectroscopic methods such as Raman and FTIR being the most frequently used. The second category comprises those used for the quantitative analysis of NPs, where fluorescence-based methods and nanoparticle tracking analysis are increasingly used for this assessment. Despite these advances, significant challenges remain, such as matrix interferences caused by salinity and organic matter, low environmental concentrations of NPs, and the lack of standardized protocols. This review highlights the need for standardized protocols, validated reference materials, and integrated multi-technique approaches to improve the comparability of nanoplastics measurements in marine environments. Full article

The sustainability, crop production, and food safety of agriculture are increasingly challenged by microplastic pollution, as agricultural soils are the largest reservoirs and may serve as points of contact for plastic particles in the food chain. This review provides a comprehensive overview of plant materials, fate and uptake pathways, detection techniques, and the possible risks of microplastics in agriculture. Agroecosystems are also a source of microplastics, such as plastic mulch films, sewage sludge, compost and manure additives, wastewater irrigation, polymer-coated fertilizers, greenhouse materials, atmospheric deposition, and decomposition of discarded agricultural plastics. Their distribution and mobility in soil are controlled by polymer composition, particle size, morphology, density, surface ageing, soil texture, organic matter content, tillage practices, runoff, leaching, and soil biota. Recent data show that microplastics, especially smaller microplastics and nanoplastics, can attach to root surfaces, penetrate plants via cracks in roots, areas of lateral root development, and apoplastic pathways, and eventually move to tissues aboveground. Plant tissue detection is often accomplished by digestion of the sample, density separation, visual and fluorescence microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, pyrolysis–gas chromatography mass spectrometry, and electron microscopy, but standardization of these methods remains a significant challenge. Microplastics can disrupt seed germination, root structure, nutrient absorption, photosynthesis, oxidative homeostasis, biomass buildup, yield development, and quality. Further, their capacity to transport additives, plasticizers, heavy metals, and persistent organic pollutants raises concerns about the transfer of contaminants to edible plant parts and their potential transfer to human diets. Further studies are needed focusing on field-realistic exposure conditions, long-term crop–soil interactions, nanoplastics behaviour, standardised analysis procedures, uptake and translocation pathways, edible crop risk assessments, and sustainable mitigation approaches to reduce microplastics in agroecosystems. Full article

Plastic pollution is an increasing concern in freshwater ecosystems, yet the roles of polymer chemistry, environmental context, and microbial community composition in governing degradation remain poorly resolved. This study examined plastic–microbe interactions across river, creek, and pond environments using gravimetric mass loss, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Four polymers were evaluated: biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) and polylactic acid (PLA), and conventional low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Rapid biofilm formation occurred on all plastic surfaces, indicating widespread microbial colonization; however, measurable degradation was strongly polymer-dependent. PHA exhibited rapid and extensive mass loss across environments, approaching complete degradation after four months in river and pond settings, whereas PLA, LDPE, and PET showed limited mass loss despite substantial colonization. Environmental context influenced degradation intensity, but these effects amplified degradation only when polymer chemistry permitted breakdown. Microbial community analyses showed that substrate presence influenced beta diversity more than alpha diversity, and differential abundance patterns revealed overlapping enriched taxa across polymers. Overall, degradation was governed primarily by polymer chemistry and environmental conditions, while microbial composition played a secondary, indirect role. Full article

Applying sludge from wastewater treatment plants to agricultural soils is a major pathway for microplastics (MPs) to reach terrestrial ecosystems, with critical implications for food and environmental safety. A longitudinal analysis (13 months) was conducted to evaluate vermicomposting (with Eisenia andrei) as a remediation strategy, comparing fresh sludge, worm casts, mature vermicompost, and control (earthworm-free) compost. MPs were isolated by chemical digestion and density separation and characterized by optical microscopy and μ-Raman spectroscopy. The MP content of fresh casts (584 ± 45 MP·g⁻¹; p = 0.036), driven by the mechanical and digestive activity of earthworms, showed a significant increase relative to sludge, in contrast to the invariant results observed in the control compost. The MP content of the vermicompost initially increased to 755 ± 88 MP·g⁻¹ after 3 months of maturation due to gradual fragmentation by microbial degradation. However, after 13 months, the MP content in vermicompost, compared to the initial sludge, decreased by 62% (reduction of 625 ± 49 MP·g⁻¹; p < 0.001), more than the 56% (reduction of 560 ± 83 MP·g⁻¹; p = 0.001) observed in the control compost, suggesting a net long-term decrease. Morphological, colorimetric, and compositional changes, reflected by browning and reduced particle size and natural fiber content, revealed a temporal lag, with earlier transformation in vermicomposted samples. Overall, the findings show the potential of vermicomposting to reduce the MP content of sewage sludge used as a soil amendment. Full article

Microplastics constitute an emerging contaminant of major concern in Latin America, where human exposure predominantly occurs through ingestion of drinking water and marine/estuarine food chains. This review synthesises available evidence on occurrence, exposure pathways, toxicological mechanisms, and regional public health risks, while examining regulatory and monitoring limitations that constrain effective risk management. Reported concentrations in drinking water show a wide range (1–1194 particles/L), dominated by PET, PP, and PS, with fibres and fragments as the main morphotypes. In commercial marine species, prevalence reaches 70–100%, with burdens up to 44 particles/g in oysters and ~90 particles/250 g in mussels. Estimated Daily Intake is 2–5 times higher in children (e.g., Chile: 13.03 vs. 5.59 particles/day in adults). Toxicological mechanisms include oxidative stress, chronic inflammation (NF-κB pathway), endocrine disruption, intestinal dysbiosis, systemic translocation, and placental transfer, exacerbated by vectorization of local co-contaminants (Hg from mining, Cd/Pb from agriculture). Risk indices indicate extreme danger in Brazil, Chile, and Ecuador, where data are available. Significant geographic and methodological gaps persist, with Brazil dominating research (~50–60%). Multicenter biomonitoring, harmonised surveillance networks, and SDG-aligned policies are urgently needed to reduce exposure burdens, protect vulnerable populations, and advance toward comprehensive regional risk assessment. Full article

Atmospheric microplastics are increasingly recognized as emerging contaminants in urban air, yet evidence from Philippine cities outside Metro Manila remains limited. This study provides a preliminary roadside baseline assessment of airborne microplastics in Cagayan de Oro City, southern Philippines. Atmospheric particles were collected from 12 roadside stations distributed across four urban roads, with three stations per road, during a standardized dry-season midday sampling period, and were subsequently subjected to alkaline digestion, microscopic screening, and ATR-FTIR confirmation. Of 99 visually suspected particles, 44 were verified as synthetic polymers and retained in the final dataset. Mean atmospheric microplastic concentrations ranged from 0.0079 to 0.0212 items m⁻³, with J.R. Borja Street showing the highest concentration and Nazareth Street the lowest. Abundance did not differ significantly among roads, whereas particle shape, color, and polymer composition showed significant differences within the confirmed dataset, while size-class distribution did not. Fibers were the dominant morphology (56.8%), transparent particles were the most common color class (52.3%), and polypropylene and polyethylene terephthalate were the predominant polymers. Taken together, the findings confirm the presence of airborne microplastics across roadside environments in Cagayan de Oro City and suggest that, under the sampled conditions, spatial variation was more evident in particle characteristics than in overall abundance. This study contributes an initial polymer-confirmed roadside dataset for a secondary Philippine city and highlights the value of composition-based assessment in urban air quality monitoring. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) in wastewater treatment plants are exposed to oxidative conditions during disinfection and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), which can alter morphology and surface chemistry and influence interactions with coexisting contaminants. Here, accelerated chemical oxidation was simulated using heat-activated potassium persulfate (K₂S₂O₈) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) to examine the oxidative aging of MPs made from polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polypropylene (PP). Changes in particle morphology and surface chemistry before and after oxidant treatment were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for morphological analysis and attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy for chemical characterization. Carbonyl formation, an indicator of polymer oxidation, was evaluated using the carbonyl index (CI). Both oxidants induced surface morphological defects and carbonyl functional groups in the MPs, with CI increasing with degradation time. The CI trends suggest that MP oxidation varies with polymer type and oxidant. The effect of oxidative aging on MP sorption capacity was also investigated using copper ions as a model inorganic constituent. Although oxidative aging introduced oxygen-containing functional groups, no statistically significant differences in copper sorption were observed between pristine and oxidized MPs, indicating that MPs can act as vectors for copper regardless of their degree of surface oxidation. Full article

Microplastic (MP) pollution is an emerging environmental stressor in marine ecosystems, yet its relationship with trophic ecology remains poorly understood in deep-sea environments. This study investigated MP ingestion in relation to trophic ecology in three deep-sea fish species (Chlorophthalmus agassizi, Hoplostethus mediterraneus, and Coelorinchus caelorhincus) from the central Tyrrhenian Sea (Western Mediterranean). Stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) was combined with detailed characterisation of ingested MPs to assess trophic niches, trophic position, and species-specific ingestion patterns. The three species showed distinct isotopic signatures, with C. agassizi occupying a lower trophic position, while H. mediterraneus and C. caelorhincus overlapped at higher trophic levels. MPs were detected in all species, with an overall frequency of occurrence of 34.4%, and no significant interspecific differences in occurrence or abundance were observed. However, significant differences emerged in MP characteristics. C. caelorhincus, which exhibited the widest isotopic niche, ingested larger and more diverse particles, whereas C. agassizi showed lower occurrence but higher particle loads in affected individuals. These results suggest that trophic ecology is not clearly associated with MP ingestion rates but may influence the size and diversity of ingested particles, highlighting ecological drivers of exposure in deep-sea ecosystems. Full article

Current knowledge on the toxic effects of microplastics (MPs) on human health relies on the extrapolation of data collected from in vivo studies. These studies, however, present limitations, as the particles used often differ from their environmental counterparts. Nevertheless, they provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying MPs’ toxicity. In this study, we targeted the mitochondria to investigate the effects of two types of polyethylene microplastics (PE MPs, 27–32 µm), fluorescent and non-fluorescent, on kidneys from FVB/n mice. Animals were exposed for 28 days to two environmentally relevant concentrations of PE MPs (0.002% (w/w) and 0.006% (w/w)). Results reveal that both MPs induce mitochondrial dysfunction, as indicated by oxygen flux depletion in different coupling-controlled states. Complex II dysfunction, particularly at the highest concentration of fluorescent particles, and alterations in other components of the electron transport chain were identified as one of the causes of mitochondrial dysfunction. MPs’ exposure also induced subtle remodelling of the mitochondrial membrane lipid profile, marked by shifts in specific saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, suggesting an adaptive response to preserve membrane integrity. These alterations were accompanied by oxidative stress, evidenced by decreased SOD and CAT activities, particularly under high concentrations of fluorescent PE MPs. Overall, fluorescent MPs triggered stronger mitochondrial and metabolic disruptions in the kidney. All together, these findings reinforce mitochondria as pivotal targets of MPs’ toxicity and highlight the need for improved experimental models that better reflect environmentally relevant exposure scenarios. Full article

Microplastic pollution threatens soil health by disrupting chemical and microbial balances and impairing nutrient cycling, with effects that vary depending on soil properties. The objective of this study is to determine the effects of contamination with three types of microplastics (<5 mm)—polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET)—on the microbiological and chemical parameters of four soil types in Bulgaria: Calcic Chernozem, Vertisol, Luvisol, and Fluvisol. A controlled 180-day laboratory incubation experiment was performed, where each soil type was contaminated with microplastics at three concentrations to monitor changes in key microbiological and chemical properties. It was established that microplastics contamination suppressed abundance of key microbial groups and limited nutrient availability, inducing a state of biological and chemical imbalance in the soil. PET exerted the strongest impact on soil chemical properties, with the agrochemical properties of Fluvisol being the most sensitive to MP contamination. PE and PET had the greatest influence on microbial communities, with Vertisol and Luvisol being the most affected in this regard. PP contamination altered key metabolic processes, with the specific impact being highly dependent on soil type and most pronounced in Chernozem. Furthermore, the concentration influenced the measured parameters, with the effects varying depending on the soil type and the microplastic type. Among the factors influencing soil responses to microplastic contamination, soil type appears to be the most decisive, followed by the type of microplastic. Full article

The scientific literature lacks sufficient data on the transport of various toxic pollutants by polymer particles. Investigating how the structure of microplastic particles formed during the degradation of polymeric materials affects pollutant sorption processes will improve our ability to predict environmental behavior. General-purpose polystyrene, expanded polystyrene, ABS plastic (acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene) and crosslinked polystyrene are produced on an industrial scale. Copolymers of styrene with divinylbenzene are used on a large scale as sorbents for gel permeation chromatography (Styragel brand sorbents), in the production of catalysts on a polymer substrate or ion-exchange resins. In this study, non-spherical, crosslinked polystyrene microparticles with varying polystyrene chain packing densities were used as model microplastic particles representative of crosslinked polystyrene. It was shown that the adsorption of a hazardous chemical rhodamine B was influenced by both the packing density of the polystyrene chains and the presence of ionic functional groups, i.e., the “degree of aging” of the microplastic particles. The sorption capacities of these model microparticles were compared with those of natural origin (silicon dioxide, quartz powder, and microcrystalline cellulose). A viability assay using HEK293 and HeLa cell lines exposed to leachates from both pristine and rhodamine B-loaded microparticles revealed that all unmodified microparticles, regardless of their nature, exhibited no cytotoxicity at concentrations up to 1000 μg/mL. In contrast, microparticles with adsorbed rhodamine B significantly reduced cell viability to 20–40% at concentrations of 100 μg/mL. Full article

Microplastic pollution has become a significant environmental concern due to its persistence and widespread impact across ecosystems. These plastic particles (1 μm to 5 mm), originating from larger plastic debris or industrial sources, accumulate in diverse habitats, affecting biodiversity and human health. Microplastics resist natural degradation, posing challenges to both ecological sustainability and waste management strategies. Although numerous studies have explored microbial degradation, most existing research focuses primarily on bacteria, leaving the role of filamentous fungi comparatively underexplored. This represents a significant research gap, because fungi secrete a variety of extracellular enzymes, including laccases, peroxidases, and esterases, which play crucial roles in the breakdown of synthetic polymers. These enzymes facilitate the depolymerization of microplastics by targeting polymer chains and increasing their susceptibility to further microbial degradation. However, the underlying enzymatic mechanisms and their effectiveness in microplastic remediation remain insufficiently characterized. Here, we critically review the potential of filamentous fungi for microplastic biodegradation, emphasizing their oxidative and hydrolytic enzyme systems, biosurfactant production, and mechanisms of adsorption and mineralization. The novelty of this review lies in consolidating the most recent mechanistic insights into fungal-driven depolymerization pathways, integrating them with advances in genetic engineering, bioprocess scale-up, and regulatory perspectives, areas rarely combined in previous reviews. We identify current limitations related to environmental applicability, enzyme accessibility, and the lack of standardized protocols, and propose strategies to overcome these challenges through enzyme immobilization, microbial consortia design, and synthetic biology approaches. By addressing these gaps, filamentous fungi may contribute to the development of sustainable strategies for plastic pollution mitigation and support circular economy approaches toward polymer biodegradation. Full article

Microplastic pollution has become a global concern due to its widespread impacts on organisms and ecosystems. While there have been a few studies quantifying microplastics in inland areas of Puerto Rico, none, to our knowledge, have studied nearshore coastal surface waters. This study, therefore, presents the first assessment of microplastic concentrations and descriptions in the surface waters of La Parguera Natural Reserve, southwestern Puerto Rico. Using 333-micron plankton net trawls, we found low mean ± standard deviation microplastic concentrations of 0.02 ± 0.07 microplastic particles m⁻³ (95% confidence interval = 0.01 to 0.04 microplastic particles m⁻³). The most prevalent polymers were high-density polyethylene (48%) and polyethylene (32%), followed by polypropylene (11%) and polystyrene (7%). The most common colors were white (50%), blue (34%), black (8%), red (5%), and colorless (3%). Subsequently, the common structures found were fragments (78%), filaments (12%), films (8%), and fibers (2%). No clear coastal gradient or seasonal patterns were detected (p < 0.05), and mean concentrations were similar to previously surveyed oceanic waters from the Caribbean, suggesting coastal sources of marine microplastics were minimal compared to oceanic sources. This study provides a foundational understanding of microplastics in the coastal waters of La Parguera Natural Reserve and provides critical baseline data for detecting potential future changes in microplastic concentrations. Full article

Micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) are increasingly recognized as contaminants in food systems; however, the specific packaging elements responsible for particle release remain poorly resolved. Most studies treat packaging as a single material category, without covering distinct contributions from the different units of modern food contact materials (FCMs). We propose a packaging structure taxonomy based on functional elements: container (C), closure (CL), and functional layers (F), including operational interfaces (+I), designed to enable components attribution of possible origins of plastic fragments in foods and beverages. Through a structured synthesis of the current literature, we map the primary processes leading to MNP generation across these modules, including tribological abrasion at closure contact interfaces, thermally driven polymer degradation in containers and delamination or shedding from coatings, adhesives and multilayer structures. Available evidence indicates that repeated mechanical actions such as opening and closing cycles can generate measurable particle release from closure assemblies. The proposed C/CL/F + I framework introduces standardized descriptors and reporting units that improve comparability across studies and supports origin attribution. By explicitly separating packaging parts and their operational interaction zones, the taxonomy provides a methodological bridge between analytical microplastic detection and engineering strategies aimed at minimizing particle formation. Its adoption can facilitate harmonized experimental design, strengthen regulatory risk assessment and guide the development of packaging configurations that minimize plastic particle shedding into foods. Full article

Plastic pellet spills are a growing environmental concern, yet response strategies remain limited and poorly adapted. This study evaluates whether existing oil spill recovery tools, including booms, skimmers, and specialized vessels, can be repurposed to respond to acute releases of plastic pellets at sea. Plastic pellets, although small (typically 1–5 mm in diameter), exhibit variation in physical properties, including polymer type, size, shape, color, and density. These features strongly influence dispersion dynamics and the feasibility of cleanup. Our analysis reveals critical limitations in current response technologies, primarily due to their oil-centric design and lack of consideration for the unique behavior of plastic pellets. By bridging expertise in oil spills and emerging plastic threats, we outline opportunities for adaptive, cross-sector response strategies tailored to the realities of plastic-pellet spills. This study includes a field demonstration in the Northern Adriatic Sea, where oil-spill skimmers and booms were successfully tested for plastic pellet recovery under real-world marine conditions. Full article

Microplastic pollution is a pervasive and ecologically significant threat to aquatic systems. Zooplankton, as key mediators of energy transfer and carbon cycling, are particularly vulnerable to microplastic ingestion due to size overlap with natural prey. This systematic literature review synthesises 250 peer-reviewed studies on zooplankton–microplastic and nanoplastic interactions, identified through a Web of Science search (403 initial records, 2012–2026) and screened using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses criteria. Bibliometric and narrative thematic analyses were conducted to evaluate publication trends, taxonomic coverage, biological endpoints, experimental design, particle characteristics, and geographic distribution. Publication output increased rapidly after 2019, with nanoplastics emerging as a major research focus. The literature is strongly biassed toward model organisms such as Daphnia magna and Artemia salina, with limited representation of marine taxa. Ingestion and oxidative stress are the most studied endpoints, while trophic transfer, carbon flux, and multi-stressor interactions remain underexplored. Reported experimental designs are predominantly laboratory-based and frequently employ supra-environmental concentrations and simplified particle types. A major geographic gap is identified for the Black Sea, with minimal coverage and no data for dominant regional species. Future research should prioritise ecologically realistic conditions, broader taxonomic and geographic representation, and integrated multi-stressor approaches to support ecosystem-based management. This review characterises publication patterns and knowledge gaps; it does not constitute a formal evidence synthesis, and frequency distributions reflect research coverage rather than strength of evidence. Full article

Microplastics have emerged as a major environmental health concern due to their environmental persistence, fragmentation, and widespread distribution. Conventional adsorption strategies often have limited efficiency, reuse, and scalability, and may generate secondary pollutants. This work explores the use of ferrotitaniferous sand milled for 4, 8, 12, 16, 32, and 52 h and subsequently functionalized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) for the removal of Polyethylene Terephthalate(PET) microplastics. The samples were characterized using Fourier-Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The average particle size of the samples decreases with the milling time from $60\pm 35$ μm to $3\pm 1$ μm. The magnetic properties enable rapid separation of sand–microplastic aggregates from water using magnets. Ferrotitaniferous sand exhibits soft ferrimagnetic behavior, with a maximum saturation of 50.09 emu/g. The remanence and coercivity increase as the average particle size decreases. Ultraviolet–visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy was used to quantify the hydrothermally fragmented PET microparticles in water. The maximum microplastic adsorption removal was 95% within 30 s for the 12 h milled sample coated with PEG. The results show that PEG increases the samples’ adsorption capacity from 20.48 to 32.36 mg/g. The novelty of this work lies in the use of magnetic Ferrotitaniferous sands as a promising, sustainable resource for magnetic separation technologies. Full article

Microplastic contamination in wetland ecosystems is an escalating environmental threat, compromising ecosystem services, biogeochemical cycling and biodiversity conservation. This study assessed the occurrence, distribution and physicochemical characteristics of microplastics in the Ramsar-designated Pallikaranai wetland, southern India. Six representative subsamples were collected from spatially distinct locations and analyzed using density separation, followed by polymer identification via Raman spectroscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Microplastics were ubiquitously detected across both sediment and water matrices, with significantly higher abundances in sediments, indicating their role as a major sink. The dominant polymer types, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS), along with prevalent morphotypes such as fragments, fibers, beads and foams, reflect diverse and persistent anthropogenic inputs. The compositional profile strongly implicates mismanaged domestic and urban waste as the primary source. The widespread presence and accumulation of microplastics in this ecologically sensitive wetland raise concerns over potential impacts on trophic interactions, habitat quality and long-term ecosystem resilience. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted waste management strategies, pollution mitigation frameworks and continuous monitoring to safeguard the ecological integrity of the Pallikaranai wetland and similar Ramsar-listed ecosystems. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly detected environmental contaminants in both marine and freshwater ecosystems, with reported concentrations ranging from a few to thousands of particles per cubic meter depending on location and methodology. Although growing evidence suggests potential risks to aquatic organisms, the extent of their ecological and biological impacts is still under active investigation. Their size, persistence and capacity to transport chemical additives and co-contaminants allow them to enter biological systems by ingestion and respiration. When ingested, MPs cause oxidative stress, inflammation, and metabolic disorders, resulting in the destruction of vital tissues in major body organs including liver, gills, intestines, and brain. They also change gene expression, cause endocrine and immune pathway perturbation, induce apoptosis, and cause gut microbiome dysbiosis, all of which worsen the health and survival of the organism. MPs also serve as vectors of heavy metals, antibiotics, pesticides, and pathogens and enhance toxicity due to the Trojan horse effect and enable bioaccumulation in food webs. Due to their widespread presence in water, soil, air, and food, MP pollution has direct effects on human, animal, and ecosystem health. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the sources of MPs, the mode of exposure, and the mechanism of toxicity and new ecological implications. It also presents mitigation measures, and stresses a One Health paradigm as the key to taking concerted action on the international level to minimize MP pollution and protect both the environment and human health. Full article

This study investigates the distribution and concentration of microplastics (MPs) across the littoral profile of a beach, from dune base to offshore sector, including an estuarine channel and Sabellaria alveolata bioconstructions. The research was conducted at Pino di Lenne beach (Taranto, Ionian Sea), a wave-dominated, microtidal littoral system representing a unique natural laboratory with minimal anthropogenic pressure. An eco-friendly extraction protocol was used, combining methods that were already known in the literature. Olive oil proved highly effective in isolating a wide range of MP densities from sediment samples. Statistical analysis identified key accumulation zones, with the highest mean concentrations found in the submerged sandbar (2435 MPs/kg), Sabellaria bioconstructions (2324 MPs/kg), and the base of the dune (2065 MPs/kg). Fibres were the predominant morphology across all sub-environments. Distribution is interpreted as controlled by hydrodynamic processes and biological activity. The submerged beach drives MP transport, with the sandbar and shoreface acting as dynamic sinks. Sabellaria bioconstructions function as biological trap, actively incorporating MPs into their tubular structures. The dune base acts as a sink for wind-blown and storm-deposited plastics. These sub-environments function as critical littoral traps for MPs, essential for developing targeted monitoring and remediation strategies in similar coastal systems. Full article