Encyclopedia, Volume 6, Issue 7 (July 2026) – 22 articles

Digital dependence and substance use may co-occur in post-digital cohorts when platform design, peer norms, stress exposure, and individual vulnerabilities converge to reinforce dysregulated patterns of reward seeking, self-regulation failure, and affective coping. This Entry defines their co-occurrence as a multidetermined phenomenon in which digital environments, including algorithmic feeds, notifications, social comparison, and variable rewards, interact with developmental vulnerabilities such as identity formation, impulsivity, reward sensitivity, and emotional dysregulation. Psychiatric comorbidities, particularly depression, anxiety, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and personality pathology, may increase susceptibility, while socioeconomic disadvantage and unequal access to care can intensify harm. Current evidence suggests that problematic digital use and substance use are more strongly related to functional impairment, coping motives, peer norms, and contextual stressors than to screen time alone. This Entry therefore organizes the available evidence around structural determinants, individual mechanisms, mental-health mediators, and prevention strategies, with emphasis on proportionate regulation, digital literacy, culturally adapted interventions, and integrated clinical pathways. Full article

Pharmaceuticals are essential to modern healthcare but increasingly represent a pervasive and biologically active class of environmental contaminants. Following administration, many drugs are incompletely metabolised in the human body and are excreted as parent compounds or active metabolites, subsequently entering municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Conventional treatment processes only partially remove many pharmaceuticals, resulting in chronic sub-therapeutic exposure of microbial communities which act as both functional agents of biodegradation and sensitive ecological targets. Such exposure alters microbial structure and function, reduces biotransformation capacity, promotes the persistence of recalcitrant compounds such as carbamazepine and diclofenac, and drives the selection and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. These effects may propagate across aquatic, terrestrial, agricultural, and food systems via treated effluents and biosolids, linking human medical practices to environmental and public health outcomes. By integrating Pharmaceutical science, wastewater engineering, microbiome ecology, and antimicrobial resistance research, this work frames pharmaceutical pollution as a closed-loop OneHealth challenge. Full article

The use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Formative and Shared Assessment (F&SA) processes refers to the application of AI-based technologies to support formative and continuous assessment in Higher Education (HE). F&SA systems involve the ongoing monitoring of students’ learning, the provision of feedback that enables them to regulate and improve their performance, and the collection of information that informs the continuous improvement of teaching practice. In this context, AI can serve a dual purpose: when orientated towards students, it enhances learning outcomes; when directed at educators, it supports the development of their pedagogical expertise through tools designed to assist in the creation of assessment instruments, the generation of automated feedback, the analysis of learning data, and the design of simulation environments that foster the development of professional competencies. The integration of AI into F&SA practices holds considerable potential to transform traditional assessment approaches by enabling more personalised, adaptive, and timely feedback for both students and educators. In this shared assessment framework, students may likewise draw on AI applications to support specific dimensions of their learning, including academic writing, knowledge organisation, and the generation of educational content, thereby becoming active participants in their own assessment processes. However, the incorporation of AI into F&SA also requires careful consideration of the pedagogical, ethical, and institutional challenges it entails, particularly those related to academic integrity, cognitive offloading, and the responsible use of AI tools. It is therefore essential to promote AI literacy in HE among both faculty members and students, fostering a critical and informed engagement with these technologies that ensures the pedagogical relationship, along with the shared, formative nature of assessment, remains at the core of meaningful learning processes. Full article

This article aims to inform the scholarly debate on curriculum research in science education through a systematic scoping review of 140 empirical articles from four leading science education journals. Scoping review methodology was selected to map the breadth, nature, and thematic landscape of curriculum research rather than to evaluate intervention effectiveness or establish evidence hierarchies. Data were retrieved through database searches and thematic content analysis of articles published in 2009 through 2025. Based on formulations of scientific literacy framework, the analytic framework was used to conceptualize curriculum research. The review identified seven themes: nature of science and policy; inquiry-based learning; curriculum standards, materials and assessment; scientific practices; context-based and socioscientific issues education; teacher professional development; and equity and social justice. Categories focusing on standards, materials, and content leaned toward Vision I. Categories emphasizing practices, inquiry, and contexts tended to bridge Visions I and II. Categories focusing on social issues and equity tended to cross and link Vision II and III. While the category centered on teacher professional development uniquely encompassed all three visions, Vision II perspectives (science as related to society) remained dominant but increasingly aligned with Vision III frameworks, such as critical engagement, social and political engagement, and transformative education. The review emphasized the critical role of teacher pedagogical design capacity in addressing the implementation differences between intended and actual curricula. Full article

Artificial intelligence (AI) may raise productivity by automating tasks, augmenting human work and reducing information-processing costs. Yet productivity gains are not necessarily converted into broadly shared purchasing capacity or fully absorbed output. This conceptual review develops the notion of the Distributional Absorption Threshold of AI-Induced Productivity, defined as the point at which AI-related productivity growth outpaces the growth of broadly distributed real purchasing power and household consumption. The framework links AI-induced productivity to labour income, income distribution, prices, investment, fiscal redistribution, external demand and effective demand. It distinguishes a favourable transmission path, in which productivity gains support wages, disposable income, consumption and output absorption, from a critical path, in which weak distributive transmission may generate absorption tension. The review formulates conceptual propositions and preliminary operational indicators for future empirical research while treating the threshold as an analytical construct rather than a fixed empirical constant. Its contribution is theoretical: it reframes the AI productivity debate beyond both technological optimism and automation anxiety by connecting technological change, distribution and demand-side realisation. Full article

Revealed preference is an approach in consumer theory that infers preferences from observed choices rather than treating preferences or utility as directly given. If a consumer chooses one bundle when another bundle is also affordable, the chosen bundle is said to be revealed preferred to the alternative. The theory asks under what conditions such observed choices can be rationalized by a preference relation or a utility function. Observed choices may satisfy local consistency by avoiding direct reversals while still failing to support a single complete and transitive ordering. Stronger acyclicity conditions can restore rationalizability, although finite choice data may still leave the underlying preference ordering underdetermined rather than uniquely identified. Full article

The Isan Orchestra is a large-scale homogeneous contemporary musical ensemble in Thailand that systematically integrates traditional Northeastern Thai (Isan) folk instruments using the formal structural, compositional, and architectural frameworks of a Western symphony orchestra. Consisting of 40 traditional Isan folk instruments without Western instrumentation, this ensemble achieves a multi-tonal orchestral dimension by balancing the modal melodies and unique acoustic textures of regional instruments such as the Phin (plucked lute), Whode (circular panpipe), Khaen (free-reed mouth organ), and Pong Lang (log xylophone). The ensemble achieves a multi-tonal orchestral dimension without Western instrumentation. Compositional concepts rely on extracting melodic motifs from traditional folk tunes, transforming them through Western contrapuntal methods, polyphonic textures, and harmonic voice-leading. This entry systemizes the programmatic suite architecture, orchestration grids, and physical seating layouts required to achieve acoustic balance. Through this systemization, this study achieves a fully verified, replicable prototype that successfully transitions orally transmitted regional repertoire into standardized notation. The implications of this model offer a strategic, decolonial framework for institutional safeguarding, enabling Indigenous musical traditions to achieve structural parity and international visibility within higher education. Full article

Multicultural education remains a foundational yet contested area of teacher preparation in increasingly diverse, unequal, and politically polarized educational contexts. This conceptual review examines multicultural education through culturally responsive, critical, and democratic approaches by synthesizing foundational scholarship and recent research published between 2023 and 2026. Although these traditions have been widely examined, they are often treated as separate perspectives, limiting the development of a coherent framework for teacher preparation across diverse educational settings. Guided by the question of how multicultural education is conceptualized, enacted, and sustained within teacher preparation programs, the review argues that multicultural education is most effective when embedded throughout curriculum, assessment, clinical practice, and program design rather than confined to stand-alone diversity courses. The synthesis demonstrates that implementation remains predominantly fragmented or additive, acknowledging diversity without systematically advancing equity. To address this limitation, the article proposes an integrative conceptual framework organized around three complementary pedagogical orientations—culturally responsive, critical, and democratic—operationalized through reflective practice, curriculum transformation, community and contextual engagement, and pedagogical translation. The framework further incorporates contemporary scholarship on intercultural education, culturally sustaining pedagogy, democratic citizenship, Indigenous education, and decolonizing perspectives, extending existing conceptualizations of multicultural teacher preparation. The review concludes by identifying persistent challenges related to institutionalization, faculty capacity, policy contexts, and assessment while outlining directions for future research and program development across diverse national and sociocultural contexts. By integrating recent scholarship within a unified conceptual framework, the article offers teacher educators, researchers, and policymakers a comprehensive model for designing coherent, equity-oriented teacher preparation programs. Full article

Transhumanism subsumes system developments extending human capabilities, whereas posthumanism includes developments beyond actors and processes in human life. It affects agency and identity development, bringing into play ‘more-than-human-centered design’ of technology-based artefacts. Transhumanism uses science and technology to expand human capabilities, in particular intellect and health. Posthumanism addresses the co-existence of human and artificial actors while decentering human actors. It examines how technology has already and is still influencing agency and identity without necessarily requiring physical extensions. Both approaches affect (future) system development. Socio-technical system design can contribute to the respective discourse. Key issues relevant for transhumanist concerns are the dynamics of socio-technical system design, the functional, communication, and interaction capabilities of networked system elements (including human support), and learning infrastructures. Considering this structure and these capabilities lays the ground for approaching posthuman system design issues in terms of representing networked entities and their behavior albeit their different nature of actors. Implementation of a respective framework requires enabling infrastructures for the (dynamic) reconfiguration of heterogeneous networked components. The entry finally discusses how such a design framework could inform future research at the intersection of design theory, human–technology integration, and critical futures studies. Full article

Anthropology in One Health refers to the use of anthropological concepts, methods and field-based approaches to analyse health problems at the intersections of humans, animals, plants, microbes and environments. It examines how disease, risk, care, surveillance and prevention are understood, negotiated and organised in specific social and ecological settings. Its contribution is not simply to add a “social dimension” to biological problems already defined elsewhere. It also asks how a health problem is framed in the first place, whose observations are recognised as evidence, and how different ways of describing a situation shape the interventions that become possible. In this entry, One Health is approached primarily as a collaborative field of practice rather than as a single theoretical concept, bringing together ethnography, medical anthropology, political ecology, multispecies approaches, ethnobiology and studies of Indigenous and local knowledge. Full article

Machine learning (ML) in materials science refers to computational methods that learn statistical, structural, or physics-informed relationships from experimental, computational, and literature-derived materials data. These methods are used to predict materials properties, identify structure–property and process–structure–property–performance relationships, discover candidate materials, optimize synthesis and processing routes, and guide functional applications. ML is narrower than artificial intelligence (AI), which also includes broader reasoning, planning, search, and automation capabilities. It is also distinct from materials informatics, which is the wider data-centered framework that includes databases, descriptors, metadata, workflows, visualization, and knowledge management. ML can complement high-throughput computation by building surrogate models from density functional theory, finite-element simulation, molecular dynamics, or experimental data, but it is not identical to high-throughput screening itself. Unlike conventional physics-based modeling, which begins with explicit governing equations or mechanistic assumptions, ML usually infers predictive relationships from data; modern approaches increasingly combine both perspectives through physics-informed features, uncertainty quantification, and human expertise. Full article

The Misery Index (MI), also known as the Economic Discomfort Index, is a macroeconomic gauge originally proposed by Arthur M. Okun. It is defined as the unweighted sum of inflation and unemployment rates. This indicator attempts to synthesize the main factors generating economic malaise and collective discomfort, although it has been criticized for being an oversimplification of the economic problems faced by average citizens. Consequently, researchers have modified this index by incorporating variables associated with informality, interest rates, and economic growth, among others. Despite its simplicity, the MI has been utilized to describe the behavior of numerous social phenomena, such as suicide, the inclination to gamble, and tourism. However, the index has also been criticized for the inherent difficulty of associating its behavior with specific policy actions. This paper presents the main criticisms that this index has received, as well as its main applications and the various modifications it has undergone over time. Full article

Data science methodologies are playing an increasingly important role in advancing manufacturing systems, enabling improvements in efficiency, energy usage, cost reduction, product quality, and predictive maintenance capabilities. This raises a fundamental question: to what extent can data models reshape manufacturing processes, and what limitations prevent their full-scale adoption? Recent developments show a growing integration of data models within digital twin and digital shadow architectures, facilitating real-time monitoring and decision-making. Nonetheless, the complexity of industrial processes and the scarcity of high-quality, well-structured datasets pose significant challenges, particularly in terms of model robustness, interpretability, and scalability. Importantly, the effectiveness of such models depends more on data quality and representativeness than on data quantity alone. This review presents a structured analysis of data modeling techniques for manufacturing applications, with emphasis on data generation, sampling, preprocessing, and modeling approaches across diverse operational regimes, including steady, transient, and generative processes. Full article

The scientific foundations of sport-training methodology are commonly attributed to physiological principles; however, the extent to which these principles directly inform practical training models remains unclear. This narrative review examines the historical development of training theory—from early adaptology and integrative physiology to contemporary molecular discoveries in muscle biology—and evaluates their relevance to strength development. Strength expression is shown to be highly variable, influenced by neural, mechanical, technical, and psychological factors, challenging the traditional reliance on fixed percentages of maximal strength for training prescription. Additional complexities arise from individual response variability, performance plateaus, and the interference between molecular pathways activated by strength and endurance training. Emerging artificial intelligence systems offer new opportunities for individualized training optimization, injury prediction, and motor-learning analysis, while advances in brain decoding technologies highlight the potential role of willpower and cognitive processes in strength expression. Overall, current training methodologies remain heterogeneous and incomplete, although recent evidence increasingly supports modality-specific prescription principles based on load, contraction velocity, movement intent, and athlete training status. So, substantial research is required to more clearly connect physiological mechanisms with practical training applications. Full article

Public Relations (PR) is the strategic role of communication between an organization or public actor and the publics on whose recognition, trust and consent its operation depends. The field encompasses media relations, internal and employee communication, public affairs and government relations, crisis and reputation management, community relations and corporate social responsibility, investor relations, marketing communications, political communication, digital and platform engagement, and the communication of activist and non-governmental organizations. PR scholarship draws on sociology, political philosophy, organizational studies, rhetoric and media studies to examine how organizations construct, sustain and contest their legitimacy in the public sphere. The dominant theoretical framework of the late twentieth century, the Excellence Theory developed by James Grunig and colleagues, defined PR as the symmetrical management of relationships with strategic publics; the field has since broadened to include relational, dialogic, rhetorical, situational, contingent and critical approaches, alongside frameworks grounded in stakeholder theory, institutional analysis and emerging work on public legitimacy. Contemporary PR operates within a hybrid media environment shaped by digital platforms, algorithmic visibility, generative artificial intelligence and the structural erosion of institutional trust. It is simultaneously a professional industry of significant global economic scale and a contested civic function whose democratic role, ethical foundations and disciplinary boundaries remain the subject of active scholarly debate. Full article

Paprika is a spice obtained from the dehydration and grinding of red pepper fruits, primarily from the Capsicum annuum species. Its etymology comes from Slavic Balkanian languages and was adopted in Hungarian. The crop originated in America, where it was domesticated by pre-Columbian civilizations over 6000 years ago (specifically in present-day Mexico) for medicinal and culinary purposes. Following the Spanish arrival in the Americas in the 15th century, pepper was introduced first in Spain (Sevilla, Extremadura and Murcia) and later in the rest of the Old World. The agroclimatic conditions of different Mediterranean regions made it an essential crop, turning these regions into centers of production and giving this spice a sense of cultural identity. The purpose of this study lies in the technological and nutritional significance of paprika in the modern food industry, where it is demanded as a natural colorant, preservative and source of bioactive compounds, such as antioxidants and carotenoids. Despite its prevalence, the existing literature is often fragmented into specific disciplines. This article distinguishes itself by proposing a holistic approach expanding the study from its historical evolution to its socioeconomic impact, including its agronomic characteristics and industrial-scale production. It is recommended that the research community and producers focus on the sustainability of processing methods while preserving cultural authenticity, ensuring the preservation of the functional and culinary relevance of this spice. Full article

Possibility Studies are an emerging interdisciplinary field concerned with how individuals, groups and societies engage with possibilities, including imagined futures, unrealised alternatives and transformative forms of action. Drawing on psychology, sociology, anthropology, philosophy, creativity research, futures studies and related disciplines, it examines how possibilities are perceived, constructed, negotiated, constrained and enacted within cultural, social and material contexts. Central topics include imagination, agency, anticipation, creativity, counterfactual thinking, hope and social transformation. What distinguishes Possibility Studies is their focus on possibility itself as an object of inquiry. Rather than concentrating on a single domain such as creativity, innovation, futures, identity or social change, the field investigates the conditions under which alternatives become imaginable, the factors that enable or constrain them, and the processes through which they are explored and realised. Possibility Studies therefore serve as a cross-disciplinary framework for understanding how people and societies engage with uncertainty, openness and the not-yet-realised dimensions of life. Although the term is relatively recent, the field builds on longer intellectual traditions concerned with imagination, becoming, human potential and the open-ended nature of social reality. It has gained increasing relevance in response to contemporary challenges such as ecological crisis, technological transformation and political uncertainty, all of which raise fundamental questions about alternative futures and the capacity to shape them. Full article

Digital transformation and artificial intelligence are reshaping nursing education by changing how students access information, complete academic tasks, and engage with technology-mediated learning. However, evidence on digital competencies, AI-related constructs, mediating mechanisms, and academic performance remains fragmented and methodologically uneven. This systematic review of empirical studies synthesized how digital competencies and AI-related constructs are associated with academic performance and learning-related outcomes in nursing education. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines adapted to social science research, searches were conducted in Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection in March 2026, covering 2022–2026. Twenty-five empirical studies were included: 18 quantitative, 4 qualitative, and 3 mixed-methods studies. The evidence was concentrated in the Middle East and North Africa, Asia, and Europe. Findings suggest that digital competencies are associated with academic and learning-related outcomes mainly through self-efficacy, academic motivation, cognitive presence, and learning flow. AI-related evidence remains emerging, mixed, and context-dependent. Although some AI-assisted interventions reported favorable outcomes, one experimental study found greater knowledge gains with traditional text-based study than with ChatGPT-assisted learning. Therefore, AI integration should not be considered universally beneficial, but contingent on pedagogical design, task type, teacher guidance, AI literacy, responsible use, and critical verification. Full article

Artificial Intelligence (AI) in heritage management refers to the use of computational systems for tasks conventionally associated with human intelligence. These range from pattern recognition to prediction and language processing, among other dimensions such as image analysis or decision support, across the cultural and creative industries. AI applications are commonly applied in daily settings, namely for site management and visitor experience enhancement. Beyond its multiple technical functions, AI acts as a mediating infrastructure that influences how heritage knowledge is produced. Consequently, AI raises epistemological, ontological, ethical, and political questions for the future of heritage management. This entry takes into account the interconnected concepts of authenticity, authority, representation, and participation. Full article

This scoping review evaluates the role of vector-associated dissemination in contaminating the Philippine food supply chain with antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) Salmonella, an emerging infectious disease threat, using a One Health perspective to map the mechanisms through which insects and rodents bridge environmental reservoirs to human food systems. This scoping review was conducted and reported in accordance with the PRISMA-ScR guidelines. From 1969 records identified through systematic database searches, 52 studies met the inclusion criteria. These comprised 21 primary Philippine studies, 28 non-Philippine studies (including ASEAN-based historical baseline reports), and 3 policy/gray literature studies, prioritized to reflect tropical ecological and agricultural settings. Results suggest that intensive swine and poultry farming may contribute to the emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR) linked to genes such as bla_TEM and qnr. Evidence suggests that Salmonella persists in environmental matrices, such as manure and irrigation water, and that synanthropic vectors, including Rattus rattus and various fly species, potentially serve as biological and mechanical bridges in transmission. Clinical data reveal an alarming trend toward invasive non-typhoidal salmonellosis (iNTS) showing reduced susceptibility to cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones. Despite these findings, major evidence gaps remain, particularly regarding the prevalence of vector-borne Salmonella in pre-harvest produce. Consequently, mitigation requires a One Health framework that integrates non-antibiotic interventions, pest management to disrupt transmission pathways, and rapid diagnostic tools, such as loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), to enhance market surveillance. Full article

Cross-border cooperation (CBC) is defined as the structured, institutionalized, or informal collaboration between adjacent regional and local authorities, economic actors, and civil society groups across international state borders. Within contemporary border studies, CBC has transitioned from traditional top-down, state-centric diplomatic containment toward bottom-up, grassroots territorial integration. This entry synthesizes the multidisciplinary evolution of CBC across geography, economics, jurisprudence, sociology, and political science, structuring the analysis around four core dimensions: spatial, political, economic, and socio-cultural. It categorizes diverse territorial and governance mechanisms of cooperation, ranging from localized town twinnings to formalized Euroregions and European Groupings of Territorial Cooperation (EGTCs), and introduces quantitative performance metrics such as the Cross-Border Activity Index (CBAI). Examining how these structures operate along both the internal and external borders of the European Union, this entry analyzes the cyclical, non-linear dynamics of the bordering–debordering–rebordering framework. By evaluating diverse theoretical models across varying geopolitical contexts, it identifies the universal characteristics of contemporary border dynamics, conceptualizing borders not merely as physical or political demarcations, but as analytical lenses reflecting broader processes of globalization, regionalization, and territorial resilience. Full article

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are engineered multiphase materials in which a continuous metallic matrix contains deliberately introduced reinforcing phases. Their properties arise from the combined effects of the matrix, reinforcement, interface, processing route and spatial architecture. The matrix provides metallic continuity, plastic deformation capacity, processability and thermal or electrical conduction, whereas the reinforcement is selected to modify stiffness, strength, hardness, wear resistance, thermal stability, corrosion response or functional behavior. From a practical interpretation standpoint, MMC performance should not be ascribed solely to the reinforcement fraction, but rather to the coupled effects of reinforcement distribution, interfacial bonding, porosity, residual stress, heat-treatment state, and architecture. Full article