The Impact of Oral Health on the Quality of Life of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Families: Parental Perspectives from an Online Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Data Collection
2.2. Participants and Sample Size
2.3. The Survey
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | Total n (%) | FIS-8 Mean ± SD | p-Value | P-CPQ-16 Mean ± SD | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parental gender | Female | 113 (93.4) | 9.10 ± 6.57 | 0.270 | 18.01 ± 12.39 | 0.814 |
Male | 8 (6.6) | 6.13 ± 6.77 | 20.00 ± 15.01 | |||
Parental age | ≤30 | 7 (5.8) | 12.71 ± 6.18 | 0.053 | 22.29 ± 15.47 | 0.691 |
31–40 | 49 (40.5) | 7.67 ± 6.60 | 17.27 ± 11.08 | |||
≥41 | 65 (53.7) | 9.42 ± 6.42 | 18.35 ± 12.93 | |||
Parental education | High school | 63 (52.1) | 9.13 ± 6.94 | 0.578 | 18.43 ± 12.55 | 0.627 |
University | 58 (47.9) | 8.59 ± 6.21 | 17.88 ± 12.59 | |||
Family’s socio-economic status | Below average | 4 (3.3) | 6.50 ± 11.59 | 0.298 | 9.25 ± 11.89 | 0.103 |
Average | 94 (77.7) | 7.78 ± 6.80 | 19.17 ± 12.26 | |||
Above average | 23 (19.0) | 9.28 ± 6.23 | 15.48 ± 13.19 | |||
Place of living | Urban | 84 (69.4) | 9.27 ± 6.29 | 0.391 | 18.30 ± 12.37 | 0.748 |
Rural | 37 (30.6) | 8.05 ± 6.42 | 17.78 ± 13.01 | |||
Parental employment status | Unemployed | 6 (5.0) | 5.00 ± 5.58 | 0.103 | 9.83 ± 8.79 | 0.216 |
Employed | 76 (62.8) | 8.49 ± 6.37 | 19.55 ± 13.18 | |||
Retired | 1 (0.8) | n.a. | n.a. | |||
Caregiver | 38 (31.4) | 10.58 ± 6.54 | 18.26 ± 12.29 | |||
Parent employed in the medical field | Yes | 23 (19.0) | 8.18 ± 6.82 | 0.555 | 14.35 ± 9.87 | 0.149 |
No | 98 (81.0) | 9.08 ± 6.57 | 19.04 ± 12.94 | |||
Children’s gender | Female | 35 (28.9) | 9.11 ± 6.95 | 0.816 | 16.54 ± 12.03 | 0.360 |
Male | 86 (71.1) | 8.81 ± 6.50 | 18.79 ± 12.62 | |||
Children’s age | 3–6 | 26 (21.5) | 7.69 ± 5.57 | 0.578 | 16.15 ± 10.60 | 0.698 |
7–12 | 52 (43.0) | 9.00 ± 7.02 | 19.00 ± 13.14 | |||
13–18 | 43 (35.5) | 9.51 ± 9.70 | 18.30 ± 12.95 |
Characteristic | Total n (%) | FIS-8 Mean ± SD | p-Value | P-CPQ-16 Mean ± SD | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type of dental care | Standard dental office | 45 (37.2) | 5.80 ± 6.07 a,b | ≤0.001 * | 12.27 ± 9.76 a,b,c | ≤0.001 * |
Dental office with adaptation | 33 (27.3) | 7.01 ± 6.81 a | 15.57 ± 9.76 a | |||
Sedation or general anesthesia | 29 (24.0) | 11.34 ± 5.91 b | 22.11 ± 13.77 b | |||
Not using | 14 (11.6) | 12.57 ± 5.15 | 24.71 ± 12.59 c | |||
Frequency of dental visits | Regularly | 70 (57.9) | 7.53 ± 6.83 a | 0.021 * | 15.80 ± 12.34 a | 0.027 * |
Occasionally | 36 (29.8) | 11.06 ± 5.87 a | 22.58± 13.09 a | |||
Rarely | 15 (12.4) | 10.13 ± 5.86 | 18.40 ± 9.29 | |||
Time since last dental visit | ≤12 months | 93 (76.9) | 8.08 ±6.68 | 0.108 | 17.20 ± 12.49 | 0.202 |
1–3 years | 14 (11.6) | 11.57 ± 5.65 | 25.71 ± 12.34 | |||
>3 years | 3 (2.5) | 15.33 ± 7.05 | 12.67 ± 13.57 | |||
Do not remember | 6 (5.0) | 9.33 ± 5.05 | 16.17 ± 5.38 | |||
Never | 5 (4.1) | 12.40 ± 5.03 | 20.00 ± 15.16 | |||
Child’s cooperation | Cooperative | 16 (13.2) | 4.88 ± 6.83 a | ≤0.001 * | 12.50 ± 13.26 a | 0.017 * |
Partly cooperative | 64 (52.9) | 7.88 ± 6.43 | 17.08 ± 10.98 | |||
Uncooperative | 42 (33.9) | 12.07 ± 5.45 a | 22.00 ± 13.59 a | |||
Difficulties in dental care | Yes | 60 (49.6) | 11.68 ± 5.97 | ≤0.001 * | 22.90 ± 13.01 | ≤0.001 * |
No | 61 (50.4) | 6.16 ± 6.06 | 13.46 ± 10.11 | |||
Unestablished dental care | Yes | 15 (12.4) | 14.04 ± 6.38 | 0.002 * | 28.93 ± 14.32 | 0.002 * |
No | 106 (87.6) | 8.17 ± 6.33 | 16.61 ± 11.52 |
Characteristic | Total n (%) | |
---|---|---|
Toothbrushing frequency | Never | 6 (5.0) |
A few times a week | 7 (5.8) | |
Once a day | 52 (43.0) | |
Twice or more times a day | 56 (46.3) | |
Independence in maintaining oral hygiene | Fully independent | 33 (27.3) |
Parental assistance | 54 (44.6) | |
Maintained by a parent | 34 (28.1) | |
Hand coordination | No limitations | 47 (38.8) |
Partly limitations | 48 (39.7) | |
Major limitations | 16 (13.2) | |
Not capable | 10 (8.3) | |
Type of toothbrush | Not using | 6 (5.0) |
Manual | 88 (72.8) | |
Electric | 22 (18.1) | |
Combination of both | 5 (4.1) | |
Use of additional aids in oral hygiene maintenance | Fluoride toothpaste | 85 (70.2) |
Dental floss | 17 (14.0) | |
Interdental brushes | 17 (14.0) | |
Tongue scraper | 9 (7.4) | |
Mouthwashes | 14 (11.6) | |
Remineralizing agents | 27 (22.3) | |
Difficulties in maintaining oral hygiene (multiple answers possible) | The child’s non-cooperation (resistance or refusal) | 76 (62.8) |
Fear and anxiety | 29 (24.0) | |
Lack of time | 17 (14.0) | |
Lack of knowledge of methods | 7 (5.8) | |
Other | 18 (14.8) | |
Received instructions on maintaining oral hygiene | Yes | 85 (72.2) |
No | 36 (29.8) | |
Interest in education on oral hygiene topics | Yes | 96 (79.3) |
No | 25 (20.7) | |
Satisfaction with the availability and service of dental care | 3.01 ± 1.28 | |
Self-assessment of the child’s oral health | 3.89 ± 0.87 | |
The impact of the child’s oral health on the family’s quality of life | 2.27 ± 1.29 | |
Data are presented as numbers (percentages) or the mean ± SD. |
Subscale | Item | Mean ± SD | Median (Q1-Q3) | Range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Oral symptoms | Pain | 0.97 ± 1.13 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 |
Bad breath | 1.12 ± 1.73 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Food stuck on the roof of the mouth | 0.45 ± 0.91 | 0.0 (0.0–1.0) | 0–4 | |
Food stuck between teeth | 1.18 ± 1.08 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Functional disabilities | Difficulty chewing | 0.94 ± 1.25 | 0.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 |
Mouth breathing | 1.37 ± 1.27 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Sleeping problems | 1.24 ± 1.37 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Prolonged meal duration | 1.00 ± 1.26 | 0.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Emotional well-being | Distress | 1.62 ± 1.35 | 2.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 |
Irritability/frustration | 1.64 ± 1.34 | 2.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Anxiety/fear | 1.50 ± 1.37 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Shyness/discomfort | 1.09 ± 1.22 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Social well-being | School/kindergarten absenteeism | 0.89 ± 1.01 | 1.0 (0.5–7.0) | 0–4 |
Lack of concentration | 1.48 ± 1.53 | 1.0 (9.0–3.0) | 0–4 | |
Unwillingness to talk | 1.19 ± 1.49 | 0.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Avoidance of smiling | 0.46 ± 0.92 | 0.0 (0.0–1.0) | 0–4 | |
P-CPQ-16 total | 18.4 ± 12.5 | 17.0 (8.0–26.0) | 0–55 | |
Oral symptoms—total 4 items | 3.72 ± 2.95 | 3.0 (2.0–5.0) | 0–12 | |
Functional disabilities—total 4 items | 4.55 ± 3.93 | 4.0 (1.0–7.0) | 0–16 | |
Emotional well-being—total 4 items | 5.84 ± 4.38 | 6.0 (2.0–9.0) | 0–16 | |
Social well-being—total 4 items | 4.02 ± 3.60 | 4.0 (0.5–7.0) | 0–16 | |
Data are presented as the mean ± SD or median (Q1 = first quartile–Q3 = third quartile). |
Subscale | Item | Mean ± SD | Median (Q1–Q3) | Range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Parental emotions | Distress | 1.50 ± 1.30 | 1.0 (0.0–4.0) | 0–4 |
Guilt | 1.36 ± 1.34 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Parental activities | Absenteeism from work | 0.79 ± 1.04 | 0.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 |
Restless sleep | 1.17 ± 1.25 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Lack of time | 1.25 ± 1.24 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
Need for attention | 1.95 ± 1.44 | 2.0 (0.0–3.0) | 0–4 | |
Family conflicts | Blaming | 0.67 ± 1.09 | 0.0 (0.0–1.0) | 0–4 |
Fights | 0.89 ± 1.01 | 1.0 (0.0–2.0) | 0–4 | |
FIS-8 total | 8.90 ± 6.60 | 9.0 (3.0–15.0) | 0–23 | |
Parental emotions—total 2 items | 2.85 ± 2.53 | 2.0 (0.0–4.0) | 0–8 | |
Parental activities—total 4 items | 5.16 ± 3.92 | 6.0 (1.0–8.0) | 0–15 | |
Family conflicts—total 2 items | 1.56 ± 1.73 | 1.0 (0.0–3.0) | 0–6 | |
Data are presented as the mean ± SD or median (Q1 = first quartile–Q3 = third quartile). |
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Badrov, M.; Perkov, L.; Tadin, A. The Impact of Oral Health on the Quality of Life of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Families: Parental Perspectives from an Online Cross-Sectional Study. Oral 2025, 5, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/oral5020036
Badrov M, Perkov L, Tadin A. The Impact of Oral Health on the Quality of Life of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Families: Parental Perspectives from an Online Cross-Sectional Study. Oral. 2025; 5(2):36. https://doi.org/10.3390/oral5020036
Chicago/Turabian StyleBadrov, Marija, Lana Perkov, and Antonija Tadin. 2025. "The Impact of Oral Health on the Quality of Life of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Families: Parental Perspectives from an Online Cross-Sectional Study" Oral 5, no. 2: 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/oral5020036
APA StyleBadrov, M., Perkov, L., & Tadin, A. (2025). The Impact of Oral Health on the Quality of Life of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Their Families: Parental Perspectives from an Online Cross-Sectional Study. Oral, 5(2), 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/oral5020036