Milk Properties and Morphological Characteristics of the Donkey Mammary Gland for Development of an Adopted Milking Machine—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Milk Yield of Female Donkey
3. Lactation Curve in the Female Donkey
4. Physiochemical Properties of Donkey Milk
4.1. Fat Content
4.2. Protein Content
4.3. Lactose Content
4.4. Mineral Content
4.5. Vitamin Content
4.6. Total Solids
4.7. The pH Values
4.8. Somatic Cell Count (SCC) in Donkey Milk
5. Morphological Properties of the Mammary Gland in Female Donkey
6. The Use of the Milking Machine for Donkey Mares
7. Discussion
8. Conclusions
- The average daily milk yield of a donkey mare is low and depends on many factors, particularly the breed, the number of milkings per day and the milkability of the donkey mare.
- Donkey milk is characterized by little fat, protein and casein and high levels of lactose and whey proteins and is rich in lysozyme.
- The cistern cavity of the mammary gland of donkeys is characterized by the presence of multiple pockets that open directly into the teat, instead of a single cistern cavity.
- The udder shape of the female donkey was classified as 89% “bowl” and 11% “globular”, while the teat shape was classified as 78% “conical” and 22% “cylindrical”.
- There is no donkey milking machine on the market. So far, adjusted but suboptimal sheep or goat milking machines have been used.
- The company Siliconform, Germany, set itself the task of developing a milking machine for donkeys. These specific milking machines take into account all the morphological, anatomical, physiological and economic aspects to allow fast and complete milk extraction and maintain good udder health.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Guo, H.Y.; Pang, K.; Zhang, X.Y.; Zhao, L.; Chen, S.W.; Dong, M.L.; Ren, F.Z. Composition, physiochemical properties, nitrogen fraction distribution, and amino acid profile of donkey milk. J. Dairy Sci. 2007, 90, 1635–1643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salimei, E.; Fantuz, F. Equid milk for human consumption. Int. Dairy J. 2012, 24, 130–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- D’Alessandro, A.G.; Mariano, M.; Martemucci, G. Udder characteristics and effects of pulsation rate on milking machine efficiency in donkey. J. Dairy Res. 2015, 82, 121–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Conte, F.; Panebianco, A. Potential hazards associated with raw donkey milk consumption: A review. Int. J. Food Sci. 2019, 11, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Messias, T.B.O.N.; Araujo, E.O.M.; Sant’Ana, A.M.S.; Lucena, J.E.C.; Pacheco, M.T.B.; Queiroga, R.C.R.E. Challenges and perspectives for exploiting donkey milk in the Brazilian Northeast. Cienc. Rural 2022, 52, e20210058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meutchieye, F.; Kwalar, N.N.; Nyock, R.A.F. Donkey Husbandry and Production. In Current Donkey Production and Functionality, 1st ed.; Gonzalez, F.J.N., Delgado, J.V., Burgos, J.C.V., Eds.; UCO Press: Cordoba, Spain, 2014; Chapter 12; pp. 1–23. [Google Scholar]
- Prasad, B. Nutritional and health benefits of donkey milk. J. Food Sci. Nutr. Ther. 2020, 6, 22–25. [Google Scholar]
- Adams, F. The genuine works of Hippocrates. South Med. J. 1922, 15, 519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beghelli, D.; Roscini, A.; Valiani, A.; Vincenzetti, S.; Cavallucci, C.; Polidori, P. Somatic (CSS) and differential cell count (DCC) during a lactation period in ass’milk. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2009, 8, 691–693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salimei, E. Animals that produce dairy foods: Donkeys. In Encyclopaedia of Dairy Science, 2nd ed.; Fuquary, J.W., Fox, P.F., McSweeney, P.L.H., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2011; Volume 1, pp. 365–373. [Google Scholar]
- Lauzier, A.-C. Pratiques dallaitement a Port-Royal et aux Enfants-Assistes a la fin du XIXe siècle. Genecol. Obstet. 2011. dumas-00625364. Available online: https://core.ac.uk/reader/52196810 (accessed on 22 February 2022).
- Bertino, E.; Gastaldi, D.; Monti, G.; Baro, C.; Fortunato, D.; Perono Garoffo, L.; Coscia, A.; Fabris, C.; Mussap, M.; Conti, A. Detailed proteomic analysis on DM: Insight into its hypoallergenicity. Front. Biosci. 2010, 2, 526–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tidona, F.; Sekse, C.; Criscione, A.; Jacobsen, M.; Bordonaro, S.; Marletta, D.; Vegarud, G.E. Antimicrobial effect of donkey’s milk digested in vitro with human gastrointestinal enzymes. Int. Dairy J. 2011, 21, 158–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bordonaro, S.; Dimauro, C.; Criscione, A.; Marletta, D.; Macciotta, N.P.P. The mathematical modelling of the lactation curve for dairy traits of the donkey (Equus asinus). J. Dairy Sci. 2013, 96, 4005–4014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aspri, M.; Economou, N.; Papademas, P. Donkey milk: An overview on functionally, technology, and future prospects. Food Rev. Int. 2017, 33, 316–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martini, M.; Altomonte, I.; Licitra, R.; Salari, F. Nutritional and Nutraceutical quality of donkey milk. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018, 65, 33–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malacarne, M.; Criscione, A.; Franceschi, P.; Bordonaro, S.; Formaggioni, P.; Marletta, D.; Summer, A. New insights into chemical and mineral composition of donkey milk throughout nine months of lactation. Animals 2019, 9, 1161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martini, M.; Altomonte, I.; Trico, D.; Lapenta, R.; Salari, F. Current knowledge on functionality and potential therapeutic uses of Donkey milk. Animals 2021, 11, 1382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doreau, M.; Gaillard, J.L.; Chobert, J.M.; Leonil, J.; Egito, A.S.; Haertle, T. Composition of mare and donkey milk fatty acids and proteins and consequences on milk utilization. In Proceedings of the 4th Congress Italian Society Ippologia (SIDI), Campobasso, Italy, 11–13 July 2002; pp. 51–71. [Google Scholar]
- Salimei, E.; Fantuz, F.; Coppola, R.; Chiofalo, B.; Polidori, P.; Varisco, G. Composition and characteristics of ass’s milk. Anim. Res. 2004, 53, 67–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Giosue, C.; Alabiso, M.; Russo, G.; Alicata, M.L.; Torrisi, C. Jennet milk production during the lactation in a Sicilian farming system. Animals 2008, 2, 1491–1495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Miraglia, N.; Salimei, E.; Fantuz, F. Equine milk prodcution and valorization of marginal areas—A review. Animals 2020, 10, 353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Muhatai, G.; Cheng, L.; Rugoho, I.; Xiao, G.; Chen, G.; Hodge, S.; Zhou, X. Effect of parity, milking time and stage of lactation on milk yield of Jiangyue donkey (Equus asinus) in North West China. J. Dairy Res. 2017, 84, 23–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salimei, E.; Fantuz, F.; Varisco, G.; Maglieri, C.; Polidori, M. Different fibre sources in dairy ass’s diet: Effect on milk yield and composition. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2005, 4 (Suppl. S2), 430–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ivankovic, A.; Ramljak, J.; Stulina, I.; Antunac, N.; Basic, I.; Kelava, N.; Konjacic, M. Characteristics of the lactation, chemical composition and milk hygiene quality of the Littoral-Dinaric ass. Mljekarstvo 2009, 59, 107–113. [Google Scholar]
- Ivankovic, A.; Ramljak, J.; Potocnik, K.; Baban, M.; Strucic, D. Milking characteristics of Istrian and littoral Dinaric donkey breeds. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Animal Science, Belgrade, Serbia, 23–25 September 2014; pp. 119–123. [Google Scholar]
- Dai, F.; Segati, G.; Costa, E.D.; Burden, F.; Judge, A.; Minero, M. Management practices and milk production in dairy donkey farms distributed over the Italian territory. Maced. Vet. Rev. 2017, 40, 131–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martini, M.; Altomonte, I.; Salari, F.; Caroli, A.M. Short communication: Monitoring nutritional quality of Amiata donkey milk: Effects of lactation and productive season. J. Dairy Sci. 2014, 97, 6819–6822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alabiso, M.; Giosue, C.; Alicata, M.L.; Mazza, F.; Iannolino, G. The effects of different milking intervals and milking times per day in jennet milk production. Animals 2009, 3, 543–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Skeptics in Jordan Become Fans of Donkey Milk Soap. Madaba Jordan. 9 September 2021, p. 6. Available online: www.taipeitimes.com (accessed on 22 February 2022).
- D’Alessandro, A.G.; Martemucci, G. Lactation curve and effects of milking regimen on milk yield and quality, and udder health in Martina franca jennies (Equus asinus). J. Anim. Sci. 2012, 90, 669–681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fantuz, F.; Maglieri, C.; Casamassima, D.; Palazzo, M.; Chiofalo, B.; Salimei, E. Nutritional status of dairy assesses managed with different machine milking strategies. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2007, 6, 647–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Madhusudan, N.C.; Ramachandra, C.T.; Udaykumar, N.; Sharngouda, H.; Nagraj, N.; Jagjivan, R. Composition, characteristics, nutritional value and health benefits of donkey milk-a review. Dairy Sci. Technol. 2017, 1, 01538532. [Google Scholar]
- Aspri, M.; Souroullas, K.; Ioannou, C.; Papademas, P. Physio-Chemical composition and antimicrobial protein content of early lactation donkey milk. Int. J. Food Stud. 2019, 8, 68–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salari, F.; Ciampolini, R.; Mariti, C.; Millanta, F.; Altomonte, I.; Licitra, R. A multi-approach study of the performance of dairy donkey during lactation: Preliminary results. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2019, 18, 1135–1141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chiavari, C.; Coloretti, F.; Nanni, M.; Sorrentino, E.; Grazia, L. Use of donkey’s milk for a fermented beverage with lactobacilli. Lait 2005, 85, 481–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Keipopele, K.; Seifu, E.; Sekwati-Monang, B. Composition and microbial quality of donkey milk sold in Gaborone, Botswana. Livest. Res. Rural. Dev. 2018, 30, 115. [Google Scholar]
- Ling, L.; Xinfeng, L.; Hong, G. The nutritional ingredients and antioxidant activity of donkey milk and donkey milk powder. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 2018, 27, 393–400. [Google Scholar]
- Mariani, P.L. Donkey Milk Nutraceutical Characteristics: A Biochemical Evaluation of Nutritious and Clinical Properties. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy, 2008; pp. 1–169. [Google Scholar]
- Polidori, P.; Beghelli, D.; Mariani, P.; Vinecenzetti, S. Donkey milk production: State of the art. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2009, 8, 677–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gubic, J.; Tasic, T.; Tomic, J.; Torbica, A.; Ilicic, M.; Tasic, T.; Saric, L.; Popovic, S. Characterization of several milk proteins in domestic Balkan donkey breed during lactation, using lab on a chip capillary electrophoresis. Chem. Ind. Chem. Eng. 2016, 22, 9–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- D’Alessandro, A.G.; De Petro, R.; Claps, S.; Pizzillo, M.; Martemucci, G. Yield and quality of milk and udder health in Martina Franca ass: Effects of daily interval and time of machine milking. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2009, 8, 697–699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tidona, F.; Criscione, A.; Guastella, A.M.; Bordonaro, S.; Marletta, D. Gross composition and nutritional properties of donkey milk produced in Sicily. J. Sci. Technol. 2011, 62, 217–221. [Google Scholar]
- Fox, P.F. Milk. In In Encyclopaedia of Dairy Sciences; Roginski, H., Fuquay, J.W., Fox, P.F., Eds.; Academic Press: Lonodon, UK, 2003; pp. 1805–1812. [Google Scholar]
- Altomonte, I.; Salari, F.; Licitra, R.; Martini, M. Donkey and human milk: Insights into their compositional similarities. Int. Dairy J. 2019, 89, 111–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polidori, F. II latte dietetico. In Proceedings of the Aspetti Dietetic nella Produzione del Latte, un Alimento Antico Proiettato verso il Future Symposium, Torino, Italy, 4 November 1994; pp. 47–58. [Google Scholar]
- Pinto, F.; Lestinghi, A.; Caputi Jambrenghi, A.; Marsico, G.; Vonghia, G. Conservazione e valorizzazione dell’asino di Martina Franca: Influenza dell’integrazione alimentare su alcuni aspetti quanti-qualitative del latte. 1. Indagine preliminare. In Proceedings of the 4th Convegno Nazionale della Biodiversita Congress, Alghero, Italy, 1998; pp. 1173–1176. [Google Scholar]
- Fantuz, F.; Ferraro, S.; Todini, L.; Piloni, R.; Mariani, P.; Salimei, E. Donkey milk concentration of calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium and magnesium. Int. Dairy J. 2012, 24, 143–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vincenzetti, S.; Santini, G.; Polzonetti, V.; Pucciarelli, S.; Klimanova, Y.; Polidori, P. Vitamins in Human and donkey milk: Functional and nutritional role. Nutrients 2021, 13, 1509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ren, X.; Yang, Z.; Shao, B.; Yin, S.A.; Yank, X. B-vitamin levels in human milk among different lactation stages and areas in China. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0133285. [Google Scholar]
- Navratilova, P.; Borkovcova, I.; Kaniova, L.; Dluhosova, S.; Zachovalova, H. The content of selected vitamins and iodine in mare’s milk. Acta Vet. 2019, 88, 473–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haug, A.; Hostmark, A.T.; Harstad, O.M. Bovine milk in human nutrition—A review. Lipids Health Dis. 2007, 6, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pieszka, M.; Luszczynski, J.; Zamachowska, M.; Augustyn, R.; Dlugosz, B.; Hedrzak, M. Is mare milk an appropriate food for people? A review. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2016, 16, 33–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nayak, C.M.; Ramachandra, C.T.; Nidoni, U.; Hiregoudar, S.; Ram, J.; Naik, N. Physico-chemical composition, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, fatty acid profile and sensory evaluation of donkey milk from Indian small grey breed. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 57, 2967–2974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hoppu, U.; Rinne, M.; Salo-Väänänen, P.; Lampi, A.-M.; Piironen, V.; Isolauri, E. Vitamin C in breast milk may reduce the risk of atopy in the infant. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 59, 123–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vincenzetti, S.; Savini, M.; Cecchini, C.; Micozzi, D.; Carpi, F.; Vita, A.; Polidori, P. Effect of lyophilization and use of probiotics on donkey milk nutritional characteristics. Int. J. Food Eng. 2011, 7, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martini, M.; Altomonte, I.; Licitra, R.; Salari, F. Short communication: Technological and seasonal variations of vitamin D and other nutritional components in donkey milk. J. Dairy Sci. 2018, 101, 8721–8725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kaskous, S. Physiological Aspects of milk somatic cell count in dairy cattle. Int. J. Livest. Res. 2021, 11, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pilla, R.; Dapra, V.; Zecconi, A.; Piccinini, R. Hygienic and health of donkey milk during a follow up study. J. Dairy Res. 2010, 77, 392–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sarno, E.; Santoro, A.M.L.; Di Palo, R.; Costanzo, N. Microbiological quality of raw donkey milk from Campania region. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2012, 11, 266–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tavsanli, H.; Gökmen, M.; Önen, A. Chemical and microbiological quality of donkey milk. Ankara Üniv. Vet. Fak. Derg. 2020, 67, 243–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malissiova, E.; Arsenos, G.; Papademas, P.; Fletouris, D.; Manouras, A.; Aspri, M.; Nikolopoulou, A.; Giannopoulou, A.; Arvanitoyannis, I. Assessment of donkey milk chemical, microbiological and sensory attributs in Greece and Cyprus. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 2016, 69, 143–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fantuz, F.; Ferraro, S.; Todini, L.; Piloni, R.; Mariani, P.; Malissiova, E.; Salimei, E. Minor and potentially toxic trace elements in milk and blood serum of dairy donkeys. J. Dairy Sci. 2015, 98, 5125–5132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hassan, E.A.; Abdelgalil, A.I.; Torad, F.A.; Shamaa, A.A. Ultrasonographic examination of mammary glands in lactating Jennies (Equua asinus). Pak. Vet. J. 2016, 36, 89–92. [Google Scholar]
- Doreau, M. Le lait de jument. INRA Prod. Anim. 1991, 4, 297–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drogoul, C.; Prevost, H.; Maubois, J.L. Le lait de juments: Un produit, une filiere a developer? Quoi de Neuf en Matiere D’etudes de Recherches sur le Cheval 1992, 18, 37–51. [Google Scholar]
- De Palo, P.; Auclair-Ronzaud, J.; Maggiolino, A. Mammary gland physiology and farm management of dairy mares and jennies. JDS Commun. 2022, 3, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doreau, M.; Boulot, S. Recent knowledge on mare milk production: A review. Livest. Prod. Sci. 1989, 22, 213–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Souza Farias, S.; Montechese, A.C.D.; Bernardino, T.; Rodrigues, P.H.M.; De Araujo Oliveira, C.A.; Zanella, A.J. Two hours of separation prior to milking: Is this strategy stressful for Jennies and their foals? Animals 2021, 11, 178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Le Du, J. Mechanical milking of mares. In Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, Budapest, Hungary, 1–4 September 1986; pp. 1–12. [Google Scholar]
- Brito, M.D.F.; Seppa, G.S.; Teixeira, L.G.; Rocha, T.G.; Franca, T.D.N.; Hess, T.M.; Peixoto, P.V. Mammary adenocarcinoma in a mare. Cienc. Rural 2008, 38, 556–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Simoni, A.; Salimei, E.; Varisco, G. Struttura e Routine di Mungitura e Caratteristiche Della Produzione di Latte di Asina, Alimento Ipoallergenico per L’infanzia; Atti VI Convegno Societa Italiana di Ippologia: Campobasso, Italy, 2004; pp. 85–98. [Google Scholar]
- Tilki, M.; Inal, O.; Colak, M.; Garip, M. Relationships between milk yield and udder measurement in Brown Swiss cows. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 2005, 29, 75–81. [Google Scholar]
- Salimei, E.; Belli Blanes, R.; Marano, A.; Ferretti, E.; Varisco, G.; Casamassima, D. Produzione quanti-qualitativa di latte di asina: Risultati di due lattazioni. In Proceedings of the 35th Simposio Internazionale di Zootecnia, Ragusa, Italy, 2000; pp. 315–322. [Google Scholar]
- Salimei, E.; Cattaneo, M.; Chiofalo, B.; Dell’Orto, V. Exploitation of mare’s milk by polyunsaturated fatty acids enrichment. In Food and Health: Role of Animal Products; Enne, G., Greppi, G.F., Eds.; Biofutur Elsevier Publisher: Milano, Italy, 1996; pp. 223–227. [Google Scholar]
- Boselli, C.; Mazzi, M.; Filippetti, F.; Giangolini, G.; Amatiste, S. Milk flow curve in Amiata donkey breed. Ital. J. Anim. Sci. 2013, 12, 103–104. [Google Scholar]
- Sorrentino, E.; Di Renzo, T.; Succi, M.; Reale, A.; Tremonte, P.; Coppola, R.; Salimei, E.; Colavita, C. Microbiological characteristics of raw ass’s milk: Manual vs. machine milking. In Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production, Heraklion, Greece, 23–27 August 2010; Wageningen Academic Publishers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, 2010; Volume 16, p. 44. [Google Scholar]
- Kaskous, S.; Fadlelmoula, A. Adaptability of dairy cows to individual quarter milking system after changing from tying to loose housing system. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 2015, 3, 225–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kaskous, S. The effect of using quarter individual milking system “MultiLactor” on improvement of milk performance and milk quality of different dairy cows breeds in different farms. Emir. J. Food Agric. 2018, 30, 57–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaskous, S. Camel Milk Composition, Udder Health and Effect of Different Storage Times and Temperatures on Raw Milk Quality Using Camel Milking Machine “StimuLactor”. Agric. Food Sci. Res. 2019, 6, 172–181. [Google Scholar]
- Kaskous, S. Optimization of Milk Performance and Quality in Dairy Farms by using a Quarter individual Milking System “MultiLactor”. Int. J. Environ. Agric. Biotechnol. 2020, 5, 943–952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaskous, S. A new milking technology: “StimuLactor” for lactating camels. J. Camel Pract. Res. 2021, 28, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaskous, S. Laboratory tests to optimize the milking machine settings with air inlet teat cups for sheep and goats. Dairy 2022, 3, 29–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tafaro, A.; Magrone, T.; Jirillo, F.; Martemucci, G.; D’Alessandro, A.G.; Amati, L.; Jirillo, E. Immunological properties of donkey’s milk: Its potential use in the prevention of atherosclerosis. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2007, 13, 3711–3717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Čagalj, M.; Brezovečki, A.; Mikulec, N.; Antunac, N. Composition and properties of mare’s milk of Croatian Cold blood horse breed. Mljekarstvo 2014, 64, 3–11. [Google Scholar]
- Carminati, D.; Tidona, F. Nutritional value and potential health benefits of donkey milk. In Nutrients in Dairy and Their Implications on Health and Disease; Watson, R.R., Collier, R.J., Preedy, V.R., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; Chapter 31; pp. 407–414. [Google Scholar]
- Romaniuk, K.; Majszyk-Swiatek, M.; Kryszak, K.; Danielewicz, A.; Andraszek, K. Alternative use of mare milk. Zootech 2019, 348, 121–130. [Google Scholar]
- Salimei, E.; Fantuz, F. Horse and donkey milk. In Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition: Production, Composition and Health; Park, Y.W., Heanlein, F.W., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons: Oxford, UK, 2013; pp. 594–613. [Google Scholar]
- Markiewicz-Keszycka, M.; Czyzak-Runowska, G.; Wojtowski, J.; Jozwik, A.; Pankiewicz, R.; Leska, B.; Krzyzewski, J.; Strzalkowska, N.; Marchewka, J.; Bagnicka, E. Influence of stage of lactation and year season on composition of mares’ colostrum and milk and method and time of storage on vitamin C content in mares’ milk. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2015, 95, 2279–2286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barlowska, J.; Szwajkowska, M.; Litwinczuk, Z.; Krol, J. Nutritional value and technological suitability of milk from various animal species used for dairy production. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2011, 10, 291–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massouras, T.; Triantaphyllopoulos, K.A.; Theodossiou, I. Chemical composition, protein fraction and fatty acid profile of donkey milk during lactation. Int. Dairy J. 2017, 75, 83–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salgado, M.J.G.; Silva, A.R.; de Souza, C.O.; Lemos, P.V.F.; Oliveira, R.L.; Oliveira, C.A.D.A.; Ribeiro, C.V.D.M. Days in milk alters the milk fatty acid profile of grazing donkeys: A preliminary study. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2021, 105, 1173–1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salimei, E. Animals that Produce Dairy Foods: Donkey. In Reference Module in Food Sciences, 1st ed.; Elsevier Academic Press: London, UK, 2016; pp. 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Salimei, E.; Park, Y.W. Mare milk. In Handbook of Milk of Non-Bovine Mammals, 2nd ed.; Park, Y.W., Haenlein, G.F.W., Wendorff, W.L., Eds.; Wiley Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2017; pp. 369–408. [Google Scholar]
- Rad, J.S.; Alfatemi, M.H.; Rad, M.S. Horse milk, the composition, equine milk proteins, milk allergy and homology between mammal species with horse. BBB Br. Biomed. Bull. 2013, 1, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
- Carroccio, A.; Cavataio, F.; Montaldo, G.D.; Amico, D.; Alabrese, L.; Iacono, G. Intolerance to hydrolysed cow`s milk protein in infants: Clinical characteristics and dietary treatment. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2000, 30, 1597–1603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vincenzetti, S.; Polidori, P.; Vita, A. Nutritional characteristics of donkey’s milk protein fraction. In Protein Research Trends; Ling, J.R., Ed.; Nova Science Publishers Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2007; pp. 207–225. [Google Scholar]
- Uniacke-Lowe, T.; Huppertz, T.; Fox, P.F. Equine milk proteins: Chemistry, structure and nutritional significance. Int. Dairy J. 2010, 20, 609–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doreau, M.; Martin-Rosset, W. Animals that produce dairy foods e horse. In Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences, 2nd ed.; Fuquay, J.W., Fox, P.F., McSweeney, P.L.H., Eds.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2011; Volume 1, pp. 358–364. [Google Scholar]
- Licitra, R.; Chessa, S.; Salari, F.; Gattolin, S.; Bulgari, O.; Altomonte, I.; Martini, M. Milk protein polymorphism in Amiata donkey. Livest. Sci. 2019, 230, 103845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lönnerdal, B.; Erdmann, P.; Thakkar, S.K.; Sauser, J.; Destaillats, F. Longitudinal evolution of true protein, amino acids and bioactive proteins in breast milk: A developmental perspective. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2017, 41, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martini, M.; Salari, F.; Licitra, R.; La Motta, C.; Altomonte, I. Lysozyme activity in donkey milk. Int. Dairy J. 2019, 96, 98–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brumini, D.; Criscione, A.; Bordonaro, S.; Vegarud, G.E.; Marletta, D. Whey proteins and their antimicrobial properties in donkey milk: A brief review. Dairy Sci. Technol. 2016, 96, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Barni, S.; Sarti, L.; Mori, F.; Muscas, G.; Belli, F.; Pucci, N.; Novembre, E. Tolerability and palatability of donkey’s milk in children with cow’s milk allergy. Paediatr. Allergy Immunol. 2018, 29, 329–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Caroprese, M.; Albenzio, M.; Marino, R.; Muscio, A.; Zezza, T.; Sevi, A. Behaviour, Milk Yield, and Milk Composition of Machine-and Hand-Milked Murgese Mares. J. Dairy Sci. 2007, 90, 2773–2777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chirgin, E.D.; Semenov, V.G.; Tyurin, V.G.; Nikitin, D.A.; Biryukov, K.N. The influence of stallions on the properties of the udder of daughters. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science; IOP Publishing: Bristol, UK, 2021; Volume 935, p. 012033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chirgin, E.D.; Semenov, V.G.; Baimukanov, D.A.; Iskhan, K.Z.; Rzabayev, T.S.; Zhikishev, Y.K. The relation of productive longevity of lithuanian heavy draft mares with the udder capacity. Bull. Natl. Acad. Sci. Repub. Kazakhstan 2019, 5, 23–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Location | Breed or Type | Daily Milk Yield (kg/day) | Range of Milk Yield (kg/day) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | Local type | 1.50 | * | [6] |
China | Jiangyue | 3.00 (4 milkings/day) | 2.20–3.30 | [23] |
China | Jiangyue | 1.28 ± 0.17 | 1.16–1.54 | [1] |
Croatia | Littoral Dinaric | 0.17 (1 milking/day) | * | [25] |
Croatia | Istrian | 0.75 ± 0.30 (1 milking/day) | * | [26] |
Littoral Dinaric | 0.32 ± 0.15 (1 milking/day) | * | [26] | |
India | Local type | 1.00 | * | [7] |
Italy | Local breeds | 1.36 ± 0.51 | * | [27] |
Italy | Ragusana | 1.64 ± 0.79 (2 milkings/day) | 0.38–3.30 | [17] |
Italy | Ragusana | 1.70 ± 0.10 (2 milkings/day) | 1.28–1.98 | [21] |
Italy | Ragusana | 1.71 ± 0.66 | 1.25–2.35 | [14] |
Italy | Amiata | 0.70 ± 0.10 | 0.52–0.76 | [28] |
Italy | Martina Franca | 1.50 ± 0.08 | 1.27–1.47 | [24] |
Italy | Martina Franca and Ragusana | 1.48 ± 0.06 | 1.30–1.80 | [20] |
Italy | Ragusana | 4.87 ± 0.12 (8 milkings/day) | * | [29] |
Italy | Different races | 2.68 ± 1.96 | 0.72–6.00 | [22] |
Jordan | Local type | 1.00 | * | [30] |
Mean ± SD | 1.57 ± 1.12 |
Group | Milking | Milk Yield per Milking (mL) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Number/day | Interval (h) | Mean | Range | |
1 | 1 | 3 | 346.0 ± 7.2 a | 40–1220 |
2 | 3 | 3 | 512.2 ± 7.6 b | 50–1500 |
3 | 3 | 2 | 325.5 ± 10.9 a | 40–1640 |
4 | 6 | 2 | 282.3 ± 7.7 c | 40–1330 |
Fat (%) | Protein (%) | Casein (%) | Lactose (%) | Dry Matter (%) | Ash (%) | pH | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.16 | 1.40 | * | * | 8.74 | * | 7.03–7.06 | [34] |
0.28 ± 0.05 | 1.59 ± 0.02 | 0.72 | 6.73 ± 0.06 | 8.91 ± 0.03 | 0.32 ± 0.02 | 7.01 ± 0.01 | [36] |
1.16 | 1.57 | 0.82 | 6.33 | 9.53 | 0.40 | 7.18 | [1] |
0.44 ± 0.10 | 1.9 ± 0.02 | 0.88 | 6.40 ± 0.10 | * | * | * | [21] |
0.33 | 1.55 | * | 6.28 | 8.80 | * | * | [25] |
0.49 ± 0.02 | 2.03 ± 0.15 | * | 5.70 ± 0.14 | 10.71 ± 0.64 | 0.42 ± 0.02 | 7.16 ± 0.02 | [37] |
1.20 | 2.14 | 0.88 | 5.90 | 7.50 | * | * | [38] |
0.16 | 1.34 | 0.56 | 6.07 | 8.19 | 0.36 | * | [17] |
1.21 | 1.74 | * | 6.23 | 9.60 | 0.43 | * | [39] |
0.30–1.80 | 1.50–1.80 | 0.78 | 5.80–7.00 | 8.80–11.70 | * | 7.00–7.20 | [7] |
0.38 | 1.72 | 0.87 | 6.88 | 8.84 | 0.39 | * | [20] |
0.67 ± 0.55 | 1.88 | 0.79 | 6.84 ± 0.15 | * | 0.41 | 7.20 | [35] |
0.63 ± 0.41 | 1.71 ± 0.24 | 0.79 ± 0.11 | 6.34 ± 0.37 | 9.11 ± 0.95 | 0.39 ± 0.04 | 7.12 ± 0.08 | Mean ± SD |
Season | Daily Milk Yield * (kg/day) | Fat (%) | Protein (%) | Lactose (%) | SCC ** (log 10 n × 103/mL) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spring | 1.85 a*** | 0.39 ab | 1.93 b | 6.65 a | 5.35 a |
Summer | 1.44 b | 0.23 b | 1.81 ab | 6.05 c | 24.05 b |
Autumn | 1.41 b | 0.38 ab | 1.78 a | 6.34 bc | 9.210 a |
Winter | 1.47 b | 0.50 a | 1.92 b | 6.50 ab | 24.60 b |
Water-Soluble Vitamins | Fat-Soluble Vitamins | ||
---|---|---|---|
Vitamin | Concentration µM/L | Vitamin | Concentration µg/100 mL |
B1 (thiamine) | 0.66 | Vitamin A | 58.00 µg/100 mL |
B2 (riboflavin) | 0.17 | Vitamin D | 2.23 µg/100 mL |
B3 (niacin) | 18.75 | Vitamin E | 5.20 µg/100 mL |
B6 (pyridoxine) | 5.38 | Vitamin K | * |
B9 (folic acid) | 0.83 | ||
B12 (cyanocobalamin) | * | ||
Vitamin C | 57.00 ** |
Stage of Lactation | SCC × 1000/mL Milk | Lymphocytes % | Macrophages % | PMN % | Epithelial Cells % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 43.400 | 10.0 | 21.5 | 18.0 | 50.6 |
2 | 14.095 | 17.0 | 19.4 | 46.6 | 17.7 |
3 | 25.875 | 12.0 | 12.5 | 54.0 | 22.5 |
Parameters | Before Milking | After Milking | Significance Level |
---|---|---|---|
Udder (cm) | |||
Length | 16.7 ± 1.7 | 13.8 ± 1.2 | ** |
Width | 11.8 ± 1.8 | 9.4 ± 1.4 | ** |
Depth | 11.2 ± 1.6 | 9.7 ± 1.6 | ** |
Teats (cm) | |||
Length | 4.6 ± 1.0 | 3.9 ± 1.0 | ns |
Diameter at the base | 3.3 ± 0.7 | 2.4 ± 0.8 | * |
Diameter at the apex | 2.3 ± 0.5 | 1.9 ± 0.5 | * |
Teat distance at the base | 5.7 ± 0.8 | 4.2 ± 0.8 | ** |
Teat distance at the apex | 6.6 ± 1.0 | 5.3 ± 1.0 | ** |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kaskous, S.; Pfaffl, M.W. Milk Properties and Morphological Characteristics of the Donkey Mammary Gland for Development of an Adopted Milking Machine—A Review. Dairy 2022, 3, 233-247. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy3020019
Kaskous S, Pfaffl MW. Milk Properties and Morphological Characteristics of the Donkey Mammary Gland for Development of an Adopted Milking Machine—A Review. Dairy. 2022; 3(2):233-247. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy3020019
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaskous, Shehadeh, and Michael W. Pfaffl. 2022. "Milk Properties and Morphological Characteristics of the Donkey Mammary Gland for Development of an Adopted Milking Machine—A Review" Dairy 3, no. 2: 233-247. https://doi.org/10.3390/dairy3020019