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Soil Syst., Volume 9, Issue 1 (March 2025) – 13 articles

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29 pages, 7191 KiB  
Article
Assessing Different Stubble Tillage Technologies on Covered and Uncovered Surfaces
by Zoltán Kende, Norbert Egri, Márta Birkás, Márton Jolánkai, Viola Kunos, Boglárka Bozóki and Ákos Tarnawa
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010013 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 315
Abstract
This study evaluates the impact of ten stubble tillage methods, cultivators, and disk harrows, on clay loam soil under uncovered and mulched conditions during a wetter-than-average (+20% precipitation) summer in 2020. Key parameters such as soil moisture, penetration resistance, soil structure, surface coverage, [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the impact of ten stubble tillage methods, cultivators, and disk harrows, on clay loam soil under uncovered and mulched conditions during a wetter-than-average (+20% precipitation) summer in 2020. Key parameters such as soil moisture, penetration resistance, soil structure, surface coverage, and earthworm abundance were assessed. Shallow tillage with the Lemken Rubin 9 disk preserved the highest soil moisture (27.65% at 15–30 cm depth) while reducing compaction. Mulched conditions with the Bird cultivator yielded the highest earthworm abundance, while uncovered treatments, such as Carrier deep, outperformed covered alternatives in some cases. The study underscores the role of stubble tillage in soil conservation, particularly under climate change scenarios, and aligns with the European Green Deal’s emphasis on sustainable and resilient agricultural practices by contributing to the development of sustainable farming practices. Full article
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21 pages, 7521 KiB  
Article
Seasonal and Land Use Effects on Soil Respiration and Its Controlling Factors in Arid Lands from Northeastern Mexico
by Emmanuel F. Campuzano, Gabriela Guillen-Cruz, René Juárez-Altamirano and Dulce Flores-Rentería
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010012 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 369
Abstract
The extreme conditions in arid ecosystems make these environments sensitive to environmental changes. Particularly, land use and seasonal changes are determinants of their soil carbon dynamics. The effect of those elements on soil respiration (RS) is still poorly known in several [...] Read more.
The extreme conditions in arid ecosystems make these environments sensitive to environmental changes. Particularly, land use and seasonal changes are determinants of their soil carbon dynamics. The effect of those elements on soil respiration (RS) is still poorly known in several arid regions of the world. This study investigates the seasonal effect on the RS and its controlling factors throughout different land use systems in northeastern Mexico. RS and 34 biotic and abiotic variables were measured across agricultural crops, natural shrublands, livestock farms, walnut orchards, and industrially influenced soils during the dry and wet seasons. Six variables (soil water content, soil organic matter, soil temperature, silt, and pH) were found as drivers of RS on both local and regional scales. Seasonal and land use had a transversal effect on RS and its controlling factors. RS dynamics were primarily modulated by soil water content, with the wet season and managed lands showing increased sensitivity to climatic and anthropogenic changes. These results indicate that land management strategies are critical for carbon cycling, particularly in water-limited regions like northeastern Mexico, where land use changes are occurring at an accelerated pace. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use and Management on Soil Properties and Processes)
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17 pages, 4714 KiB  
Article
Post-Wildfire Mobilization of Organic Carbon
by Travis Numan, Srinidhi Lokesh, Abrar Shahriar, Anil Timilsina, Myron L. Lard, Justin Clark, Yasaman Raeofy, Qian Zhao, Simon R. Poulson, Paul S. Verburg, Jocelyn A. Richardson, Robert L. Cook, Vera Samburova and Yu Yang
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010011 - 30 Jan 2025
Viewed by 652
Abstract
Wildfires significantly alter watershed functions, particularly the mobilization of organic carbon (OC). This study investigated OC mobility and the physicochemical characteristics of wildfire-impacted soils and ashes from the northern California and Nevada fires (Dixie, Beckworth, Caldor). Organic carbon in wildfire-derived ashes (9.2–57.3 mg/g) [...] Read more.
Wildfires significantly alter watershed functions, particularly the mobilization of organic carbon (OC). This study investigated OC mobility and the physicochemical characteristics of wildfire-impacted soils and ashes from the northern California and Nevada fires (Dixie, Beckworth, Caldor). Organic carbon in wildfire-derived ashes (9.2–57.3 mg/g) generally exceeded levels in the background soils (4.3–24.4 mg/g), except at the Dixie fire sites. The mobile OC fraction varied from 0.0093 to 0.029 in ashes and 0.010 to 0.065 in soils, though no consistent trend was observed between the ashes and soils. Notably, the ash samples displayed lower OC mobility compared with the soils beneath them. A negative correlation was found between the mobile OC fraction and bulk OC content. Wildfire increased the total amount of mobile OC substantially by 5.2–574% compared to the background soils. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra confirmed the presence of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs), which correlated with observed redox reactivity. Additionally, X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging revealed that Fe(II) oxidation in soils beneath the ashes may have enhanced the OC mobility, likely driven by pyrogenic carbon and free radicals. These findings enhance our understanding of post-wildfire OC mobilization and the impact of ash–soil physicochemical properties on watershed health. Full article
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14 pages, 2833 KiB  
Article
Application of Self-Organizing Maps to Explore the Interactions of Microorganisms with Soil Properties in Fruit Crops Under Different Management and Pedo-Climatic Conditions
by Francesca Antonucci, Simona Violino, Loredana Canfora, Małgorzata Tartanus, Ewa M. Furmanczyk, Sara Turci, Maria G. Tommasini, Nika Cvelbar Weber, Jaka Razinger, Morgane Ourry, Samuel Bickel, Thomas A. J. Passey, Anne Bohr, Heinrich Maisel, Massimo Pugliese, Francesco Vitali, Stefano Mocali, Federico Pallottino, Simone Figorilli, Corrado Costa and Eligio Malusàadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010010 - 26 Jan 2025
Viewed by 392
Abstract
Background: Self-organizing maps (SOMs) are a class of neural network algorithms able to visually describe a high-dimensional dataset onto a two-dimensional grid. SOMs were explored to classify soils based on an array of physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Methods: The SOM analysis was [...] Read more.
Background: Self-organizing maps (SOMs) are a class of neural network algorithms able to visually describe a high-dimensional dataset onto a two-dimensional grid. SOMs were explored to classify soils based on an array of physical, chemical, and biological parameters. Methods: The SOM analysis was performed considering soil physical, chemical, and microbial data gathered from an array of apple orchards and strawberry plantations managed by organic or conventional methods and located in different European climatic zones. Results: The SOM analysis considering the “climatic zone” categorical variables was able to discriminate the samples from the three zones for both crops. The zones were associated with different soil textures and chemical characteristics, and for both crops, the Continental zone was associated with microbial parameters—including biodiversity indices derived from the NGS data analysis. However, the SOM analysis based on the “management method” categorical variables was not able to discriminate the soils between organic and integrated management. Conclusions: This study allowed for the discrimination of soils of medium- and long-term fruit crops based on their pedo-climatic characteristics and associating these characteristics to some indicators of the soil biome, pointing to the possibility of better understanding the interactions among diverse variables, which could support unraveling the intricate web of relationships that define soil quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Use of Modern Statistical Methods in Soil Science)
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3 pages, 126 KiB  
Editorial
Research on Heavy Metals in Soils and Sediments
by Manfred Sager
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010009 - 24 Jan 2025
Viewed by 307
Abstract
This special edition of the journal Soil Systems contains 14 articles dealing with current research on cationic trace elements and semi-metals [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Heavy Metals in Soils and Sediments)
18 pages, 7164 KiB  
Article
Boron in Soil, Drainage Water and Groundwater in Long-Term Irrigated Area by Treated Wastewater in Northeast Tunisia
by Salma Fatnassi, Georg Hörmann, Nicola Fohrer, Jose Navarro-Pedreño and Mohamed Hachicha
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010008 - 21 Jan 2025
Viewed by 481
Abstract
Boron (B) in soils originates from both natural and human sources, such as agriculture and industry, which contribute boron via fertilizers and irrigation water. Using treated wastewater (TWW) for irrigation is a strategy to address water scarcity in agriculture within arid areas like [...] Read more.
Boron (B) in soils originates from both natural and human sources, such as agriculture and industry, which contribute boron via fertilizers and irrigation water. Using treated wastewater (TWW) for irrigation is a strategy to address water scarcity in agriculture within arid areas like Tunisia; however, it introduces a risk of B contamination. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to assess the levels of B contamination throughout the entire irrigation system of the TWW “Cebala Borj-Touil” in Northeast Tunisia. To evaluate the lasting impact of TWW irrigation on B and the dynamics of physicochemical parameters across the entire system, soil samples were collected from various depths (0–150 cm) in a control area and gathered both prior to and following irrigation (two campaigns). Water samples utilized for irrigation and water released from drainage were gathered throughout an irrigation cycle. Groundwater sampling took place over two campaigns in April and September of 2018. The findings indicated that B concentrations in irrigation water were below the Tunisian standards (NT 106.03), while in drainage and groundwater, B levels exceeded the standard slightly during some periods. Throughout a three-decade cycle, the patterns of irrigation caused a notable transfer of boron from the topsoil to the groundwater. Therefore, it is essential to regularly supervise the irrigated area system and enhance the drainage system. Full article
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18 pages, 1627 KiB  
Article
Revegetation and Quality Indicators of Technosols in Restored Mine Fields with Saline Mine Spoils
by Àngela D. Bosch-Serra, Mónica Sorribas, Pere Gómez-Reig and Rosa M. Poch
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010007 - 19 Jan 2025
Viewed by 444
Abstract
The European Union prioritizes nature restoration, particularly in semiarid Mediterranean regions where integrating degraded coal mining areas into the landscape is essential. This involves maximizing water use and controlling runoff. A rehabilitation project in a former mining quarry was conducted with the objective [...] Read more.
The European Union prioritizes nature restoration, particularly in semiarid Mediterranean regions where integrating degraded coal mining areas into the landscape is essential. This involves maximizing water use and controlling runoff. A rehabilitation project in a former mining quarry was conducted with the objective of constructing suitable Technosols to support vegetation, limit erosion, and reduce rehabilitation costs. To prepare the substrate, mine spoils (saline materials) were mixed with residual materials, including discarded lignite powder, sewage sludge, pig slurry, and straw. Pig slurry was also introduced as a mulch in the experiment. A complete randomized block design with three replicates was set up, with each block containing two plots of the prepared substrate. In one of the plots, pig slurry was applied on the surface as a mulch to enhance infiltration and promote plant establishment. The quality of the newly created Technosols and the benefits of mulch application were evaluated 2 and 4 years after the rehabilitation. After two years, salt-tolerant plant species colonized the rehabilitated areas, providing sufficient vegetation cover to control water, soil, and nutrient losses, keeping soil losses below a 2.2 Mg ha−1 yr−1 threshold. Four years later, the new Technosols showed a fourfold increase in soluble organic-C content (up to 0.59 g kg−1) and higher soil respiration rates compared to the mine spoils and lignite powder in the surrounding degraded quarry areas. No significant differences were observed in any parameters due to superficial slurry application. Addressing salinity and optimizing vegetation cover are crucial for the successful formation and sustainability of Technosols in these environments. Full article
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25 pages, 992 KiB  
Review
Trends in the Application of Phosphate-Solubilizing Microbes as Biofertilizers: Implications for Soil Improvement
by Kingsley T. Ughamba, Johnson K. Ndukwe, Ian D. E. A. Lidbury, Nnabueze D. Nnaji, Chijioke N. Eze, Chiugo C. Aduba, Sophie Groenhof, Kenechi O. Chukwu, Chukwudi U. Anyanwu, Ogueri Nwaiwu and Christian K. Anumudu
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010006 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 752
Abstract
The application of phosphate-solubilizing microbes (PSMs) as biofertilizers in agricultural systems has not satisfactorily solved the problem of reducing our reliance on chemical phosphorus (P) fertilizers. Ongoing efforts are continually trying to translate promising laboratory results to successful deployment under field conditions, which [...] Read more.
The application of phosphate-solubilizing microbes (PSMs) as biofertilizers in agricultural systems has not satisfactorily solved the problem of reducing our reliance on chemical phosphorus (P) fertilizers. Ongoing efforts are continually trying to translate promising laboratory results to successful deployment under field conditions, which are typically met with failure. In this review, we summarize the state-of-the-art research on PSMs and their role in the terrestrial P cycle, including previously overlooked molecular and cellular mechanisms underpinning phosphate solubilization. PSMs capable of transforming either organic or complexed inorganic P compounds are discussed. By providing environmentally secure and environmentally friendly ways to increase the accessibility of phosphate, these bacteria effectively transform insoluble phosphate molecules into forms that plants can utilize, encouraging crop growth and increasing nutrient usage effectiveness. The use of PSMs in agriculture sustainably improves crop productivity and has enormous potential for tackling issues with global food security, reducing environmental damage, and promoting sustainable and resilient agricultural systems. Furthermore, due to resource shortages, the changing global climate and need to reduce environmental risks associated with the overuse of chemical phosphate fertilizer, PSMs have the potential to be sustainable biofertilizer alternatives in the agricultural sector. Phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms constitute a cutting-edge field in agriculture and environmental science. In addition, this paper elaborates on the groups and diversity of microbes hitherto identified in phosphate solubilization. Also, factors that had hitherto hindered the reproducibility of lab results in field settings are succinctly highlighted. Furthermore, this paper outlines some biofertilizer formulations and current techniques of inoculation according to the test crop/strain. Finally, laboratory, greenhouse, and field results are presented to acquaint us with the current status of the use of PSM-based biofertilizers. Full article
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19 pages, 2637 KiB  
Article
The Soil Food Web Model as a Diagnostic Tool for Making Sense out of Messy Data: A Case of the Effects of Tillage, Cover Crop and Nitrogen Amendments on Nematodes and Soil Health
by Haddish Melakeberhan, Isaac Lartey, Stephen Kakaire and ZinThuZar Maung
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010005 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 626
Abstract
Tillage, cover crops (CC) and nutrient amendments are regenerative agricultural practices (RAPs) which enhance desirable ecosystem services (DESs), including the beneficial nematode community structure (BNCS), soil organic matter (SOM), pH, and available nitrogen, and the Ferris et al. soil food web (SFW) model [...] Read more.
Tillage, cover crops (CC) and nutrient amendments are regenerative agricultural practices (RAPs) which enhance desirable ecosystem services (DESs), including the beneficial nematode community structure (BNCS), soil organic matter (SOM), pH, and available nitrogen, and the Ferris et al. soil food web (SFW) model relates changes in the BNCS to biophysicochemical conditions generating DESs. However, the SFW model’s power to identify soil health conditions influencing DESs’ outcomes has been limited. We tested how tillage, winter rye CC, and 0, 112, or 224 kg N/ha from inorganic and compost sources affected the DESs after four years of corn production. The SOM and NO3 was much greater in the no-till than the tilled soil, and the SOM in the 224 kg organic source, compared with the rest of the N rates, was significantly increased. The N recovery was not proportional to what was applied. The variable effects of the RAPs on the DESs suggest either changing or continuing treatments until suitable outcomes are achieved, all without knowing the source(s) of variability. The SFW model revealed primarily resource-limited and structured (Quadrant C) conditions, suggesting that (1) nutrient cycling needs biological activities and (2) the presence of a process-limiting factor may have contributed to the variable results. The impacts of the SFW model as a diagnostic tool are outlined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Soil Management and Conservation: 2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 5152 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Water Retention and Absorption of Organic Mulch Under Simulated Rainfall for Soil and Water Conservation
by Iug Lopes, João L. M. P. de Lima, Abelardo A. A. Montenegro and Ailton Alves de Carvalho
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010004 - 10 Jan 2025
Viewed by 536
Abstract
The use of organic mulch as a natural practice to enhance water retention and absorption is underexplored, highlighting the need for a deeper understanding of its effectiveness under varying conditions. The aim of this study was to investigate the process of interception, retention, [...] Read more.
The use of organic mulch as a natural practice to enhance water retention and absorption is underexplored, highlighting the need for a deeper understanding of its effectiveness under varying conditions. The aim of this study was to investigate the process of interception, retention, and absorption of rainwater by different types, sizes, and densities of some organic mulch covers. Six organic mulches of various sizes were used, all largely available in the Brazilian semiarid: coconut leaf (cc), cashew leaf (ca), elephant grass (el), corn leaf (co), Brachiaria grass (br), and sugar cane leaf (su), under simulated rainfall conditions. The experimental scheme consisted of a factorial of six types of mulches, three sizes (50, 100, and 200 mm), and four densities (1, 2, 4, and 8 t ha−1). Water adsorption and retention curves were constructed, and the interception capacity of different vegetation materials was estimated. Analysis of variance, Tukey Test, Regression polynomial, and Principal Components Analysis were applied. It was observed that increasing density systematically led to an increase in water retention and absorption. For 8 t ha−1 the values were 11 to 23% for water retention and 7 to 16% for water absorption of the gross rainfall depth. When comparing 8 t ha−1 and 2 t ha−1 densities, rainfall retention and absorption increased more than 100%. Higher values were obtained for cashew and Brachiaria grass, improving water retention and cashew leaves for absorption. Coconut leaves promoted only 83% retention and 67% water absorption, when compared to the cashew leaf and Brachiaria grass. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use and Management on Soil Properties and Processes)
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18 pages, 10159 KiB  
Article
Predicting Soil Salinity Based on Soil/Water Extracts in a Semi-Arid Region of Morocco
by Jamal-Eddine Ouzemou, Ahmed Laamrani, Ali El Battay and Joann K. Whalen
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010003 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 609
Abstract
Soil salinity is a major constraint to soil health and crop productivity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The most accurate measurement of soil salinity is considered to be the electrical conductivity of saturated soil extracts (ECe). Because this method is [...] Read more.
Soil salinity is a major constraint to soil health and crop productivity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The most accurate measurement of soil salinity is considered to be the electrical conductivity of saturated soil extracts (ECe). Because this method is labor-intensive, it is unsuitable for routine analysis in large soil sampling campaigns. This study aimed to identify the best models to estimate soil salinity based on ECe in relation to a rapid electrical conductivity (EC) measurement in soil/water (referred to as S:W henceforward) extracts. We evaluated the relationship between ECe and the ECS:W extract ratios (1:1, 1:2, and 1:5) in salt-affected soils from the semi-arid Sehb El Masjoune region of Morocco. The soil salinity in this region is 0.5 to 235 dS/m, as determined by the ECe method. A total of 125 soil samples, from topsoil (0–15 cm) and subsoil (15–30 cm) with mainly fine to medium textures, were analyzed using linear, logarithmic, and second-order polynomial regression models. The models included all samples or grouped samples according to soil texture (fine, medium) or specific textural classes. The mean ECe values were 2.6, 3.1, and 7.9 times greater than the EC of 1:1, 1:2, and 1:5 S:W extracts, respectively. Polynomial regression models had the best predictive accuracy, R2 = 0.98, and the lowest root mean square error of 10.6 to 10.7 dS/m for the ECS:W extract ratios of 1:5 and 1:2. The polynomial models could represent the non-linear relationships between ECe and salinity indicators, especially in the 80–170 dS/m salinity range, where other models typically underestimate the salinity. These results confirm that advanced regression techniques are suitable for predicting soil salinity in a salt-affected semi-arid region. The site-specific models outperformed previously published models, because they consider the spatial variability and heterogeneity of the salinity in the study area explicitly. This confirms the importance of calibrating soil salinity models according to the local soil and environmental conditions. Consequently, we can undertake soil salinity assessments in hundreds of samples by using the simple, rapid ECS:W extraction method as a direct indicator of EC and extrapolate to ECe with a polynomial regression model. Our approach enables the widespread soil salinity assessments that are needed for land-use planning, irrigation management, and crop selection in salt-affected landscapes. Full article
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29 pages, 2253 KiB  
Review
Impact of Abiotic Stressors on Soil Microbial Communities: A Focus on Antibiotics and Their Interactions with Emerging Pollutants
by Abdul Rashid P. Rasheela, Muhammad Fasih Khalid, Dana A. Abumaali, Juha M. Alatalo and Talaat Ahmed
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010002 - 26 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1158
Abstract
Soil is a complex and dynamic ecosystem containing a diverse array of microorganisms, and plays a crucial and multifaceted role in various functions of the ecosystem. Substantial fluctuations in the environmental conditions arise from diverse global changes. The microbial shifts in the soil [...] Read more.
Soil is a complex and dynamic ecosystem containing a diverse array of microorganisms, and plays a crucial and multifaceted role in various functions of the ecosystem. Substantial fluctuations in the environmental conditions arise from diverse global changes. The microbial shifts in the soil in concordance with the changing environmental factors, or a combination of these factors, are of high significance. Exploring the contribution of global change drivers to the microbial community to improve the predictions of the response of the microbial community to the functioning of the ecosystem is of prime importance. Promoting the health of soil microorganisms maintains the overall health and fertility of the soil, which in turn supports the health of terrestrial ecosystems and agricultural systems. The current review aims to assemble different abiotic factors or stressors that exist in the environment that affect the microbial community. More focus will be given to one of the stressors—antibiotics, a recent emerging pollutant. The effects on the soil microbial community and the future of soil health due to the presence of antibiotics will be addressed. The scope of the interaction of antibiotics with other pollutants like plastics and heavy metals (HMs) will be examined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Community Structure and Function in Soils)
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19 pages, 871 KiB  
Article
The Relationships Between Soil Health, Production, and Management Decisions Through Farmers’ Eyes: A Case Study of Tennessee Large-Scale Vegetable Farms
by Margarita Velandia, Jennifer DeBruyn, Annette L. Wszelaki and Andrew W. Stevens
Soil Syst. 2025, 9(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems9010001 - 26 Dec 2024
Viewed by 455
Abstract
Understanding farmers’ perceptions of soil health is valuable for developing strategies to increase the adoption of conservation practices. A combination of soils with poor soil fertility, low levels of soil organic matter, and the use of production practices that, although necessary for vegetable [...] Read more.
Understanding farmers’ perceptions of soil health is valuable for developing strategies to increase the adoption of conservation practices. A combination of soils with poor soil fertility, low levels of soil organic matter, and the use of production practices that, although necessary for vegetable production, could negatively impact soil health makes the exploration of how large-scale vegetable producers in Tennessee perceive soil health and manage soils interesting. Using information from semi-structured interviews with operators of three Tennessee large-scale vegetable farms, we explored farmers’ perceptions of soil health and how those perceptions connect with adoption decisions. Our results suggest that farmers’ perceptions of soil health reflect a broad perspective that includes crop productivity and disease pressure. Profitability exerted a stronger influence on farmers’ decision-making than soil health. Nonetheless, farmers recognized that there is an association between soil health and profitability. The farmers included in this study found value in the information provided by soil health tests to confirm the benefits of soil management practices. The results presented in this study will contribute to the design of future studies aiming to investigate the relationship between farmer perceptions of soil health and the adoption of best soil management practices among large-scale vegetable growers. Full article
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