Developing Coastal Resilience to Climate Change in Panama Through Sustainable Concrete Applications

Abstract

Panama, with nearly 3000 km of coastline and half its population living in coastal zones, faces high vulnerability to sea level rise, flooding, and extreme events. The most vulnerable areas include low-lying coastal provinces such as Panama, Colón, and Chiriquí. This review explores the use of sustainable concrete to address the effects of climate change in Panama towards coastal resilience. The methodology combined a bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer, a systematic literature review (2015–2025) of 99 sources including regulations and technical standards, and a socioeconomic SWOT analysis to assess adoption drivers and barriers. A 2050 permanent inundation map was examined to identify vulnerable areas, and an inventory of concrete-based protection structures was developed. The results highlight that concrete is already used in Panama for coastal resilience through structures such as breakwaters, dolos, and Xbloc units. However, as the country still needs to expand its coastal protection infrastructure, there is a crucial opportunity to implement lower-impact, sustainable concrete alternatives that minimize environmental burdens while ensuring long-term durability and performance. Sustainable options, including supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), recycled aggregates, and CO₂ injection technologies, demonstrate strong mitigation potential, with national initiatives such as Vertua, Greentec, and Argos pozzolan offering early pathways. The conclusions emphasize the need to expand sustainable concrete applications, integrate nature-based solutions, and strengthen Panama’s regulatory and technical capacity to achieve resilient, low-carbon coastal infrastructure.

1. Introduction

Climate change is currently one of the most significant problems facing the world. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [1] defines climate change as a variation in the state of the climate that can persist over long periods and is due to both natural internal processes and persistent anthropogenic changes in the atmosphere’s composition or land use. This phenomenon increases the frequency and severity with which climate-related disasters occur [2]. Although its cause is quite broad, human activities have been one of the main causes of this phenomenon through the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) since the Industrial Revolution [3].

The greenhouse gases that cause climate change are mainly carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). A substantial part of carbon dioxide emissions worldwide comes from power generation [4,5,6]. So far in the Central America and Caribbean region, the highest recorded value of CO₂ was in 2014, reaching 1855.7 million tons for the energy sector only, which corresponds to 277.3 million tons registered for the manufacturing and construction sector [7]. The main effects of climate change are sea level rise, rising average temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, floods, landslides and droughts [8]. Specifically, coastal areas face sea level rise, floods, storm surges, salinization of freshwater sources and coastal erosion (Figure 1) [9,10,11].

Figure 1. Coastal erosion in the San Carlos coastal zone, Panamá Oeste, Panama highlighting the vulnerability of shorelines to climate change and the urgent need for resilient infrastructure and nature-based solutions. Original image by Gisselle Guerra-Chanis.

Ying et al. (2024) analyzed the evolution and interpretation of the concept of coastal resilience and defined it as “the capacity of coastal areas to resist, adapt and respond to uncertain risks, such as natural disasters and human-caused disturbances at the temporal and spatial scales, as well as self-learning, recovery, transformation and long-term prevention in the future.” [12]. The implementation of urban resilience measures can mitigate the vulnerabilities of these communities by improving their ability to endure and thrive in the face of various changes [13].

However, due to the variability of climate conditions across geographic regions, a global climate resilience design cannot be counted on [14]. It is necessary to adapt these resilience measures according to the geographical region, to understand its characteristics, and to make informed decisions in order to effectively implement different mechanisms and strategies.

Given its geographical location and extensive coastline, the Republic of Panama is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including sea level rise, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, and coastal erosion [15] (Figure 2). Therefore, it is essential to implement coastal resilience strategies that protect communities, infrastructures and ecosystems. The goal of these strategies is to enable risk reduction and adaptation to extreme weather conditions and to ensure sustainable development in the most vulnerable areas of the country.

Figure 2. Playa de Farallón, Panamá Oeste, Panama, photographed on 8 September 2023, following the storm event of 2 September 2023. The image shows damage to coastal structures, buildings, and artisanal stone containment walls, with piles of displaced rocks evidencing the severe impacts of storm surges on the shoreline and nearby infrastructure. Original image by Gisselle Guerra-Chanis.

Concrete is the most implemented material when it comes to construction, thanks to its practicality, easy access to materials for its manufacture and its relatively low cost [16]. This material plays a fundamental role when looking for resistant, versatile and durable construction solutions for various coastal structures, transport routes, buildings and in turn is a relatively economical material compared to other construction materials.

The production of concrete has a great environmental impact, as it is the second most widely used material in the world, after water [14,17] and its production requires large amounts of energy from the burning of fossil fuels, which leaves a vast carbon footprint. Although materials such as steel, glass and aluminum have a higher carbon unit than concrete, concrete is mostly used in this industry worldwide, which increases its impact [14,18].

Embodied carbon is used as an indicator of sustainability in the production of concrete. However, it should be noted that the great energy demand in the manufacture of concrete comes from the production of cement, which is the main binder in concrete mixtures. The manufacture of this associated binder alone represents approximately 7 to 8% of the world’s CO₂ emissions due to the calcination process, which requires the use of fossil fuels, and the chemical reaction of this process, which, due to the raw materials, generates CO₂ emissions [19,20,21].

That is why the implementation of methodologies for producing concrete with low carbon emissions is proposed, as well as the reuse of materials under the concept of a circular economy plays a crucial role. This approach not only reduces resource depletion but also alleviates landfill pressure. These measures include sustainable concrete applications such as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), carbon capture and utilization, among others. Sustainable construction provides practical solutions for ecologically friendly and resource-efficient environments by promoting the reuse of materials and reducing the volume of waste [22].

In the face of growing environmental and climate challenges, it is urgent to promote the development of concrete with a lower environmental impact. The so-called “sustainable concrete” aims to reduce carbon emissions, optimize resource utilization, such as water and energy, and incorporate recycled or alternative materials. This transition is key to more responsible construction, aligning with the demand for sustainability and resilience required by the new regulatory and market frameworks. However, the incorporation of sustainable measures to produce construction materials entails a great challenge since it seeks to contribute to the reduction in environmental pollutants without compromising the functionality, durability and mechanical properties of these structures.

This article explores the use of sustainable concrete to address the effects of climate change in Panama towards coastal resilience. It should be noted that a resilient structure can adapt and respond to the adverse effects of climate change, thereby reducing the vulnerability to which structures and their users are exposed. The importance of resilient infrastructure is reflected in the Sustainable Development Goal SDG 9 which aims to build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation [23].

This research is intended to answer the following questions:

• Which areas in Panama are vulnerable to the effects of climate change?
• What concrete or cement-based elements or structures are used/required for coastal resilience?
• What “sustainable” (lower impact) concrete measures currently exist, and which can be implemented?
• Are there “sustainable” concretes already used in Panama?
• What other solutions can be implemented as a complement to concrete or cement-based elements or structures for coastal resilience?

2. Methodology

To analyze the role of sustainable concrete in strengthening coastal resilience in Panama, this study adopted a multi-step methodological framework (Figure 3). The approach integrates spatial identification of vulnerable areas, bibliometric mapping to capture global research trends, and a systematic literature review (2015–2025). These findings were contextualized through an inventory of concrete structures relevant for coastal protection, a targeted review of national regulations, and the identification of sustainable concrete alternatives currently available in Panama. Finally, a socioeconomic SWOT analysis was conducted to assess drivers and barriers to adoption, complemented by the consideration of nature-based solutions as hybrid strategies. This integrated design ensured that technical, environmental, regulatory, and socioeconomic dimensions were systematically addressed in the study.

Figure 3. Methodological framework of the study, outlining research questions, identification of vulnerable coastal areas in Panama, bibliometric and literature review (2015–2025), inventory of concrete structures, analysis of sustainable concrete alternatives, socioeconomic SWOT, and integration of complementary nature-based solutions. Research questions are presented in purple, methods are in green, results sections are in bold, and premises are in italics. World map source: Creative Commons, (CC-BY-SA-3.0) license [24]. 2050 permanent inundation map source: Climate Risk Atlas of Panama [25] under Open Database License Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 license (CC BY-SA 2.0).

2.1. Study Area

This study applies to the Republic of Panama due to its vulnerability to climate change [8]. Panama has an area of 74,177.3 km² and is located between 7°12′07″ and 9°38′46″ north latitude and 77°09′24″ and 83°03′07″ west longitude. It is bordered to the east by Colombia, to the west by Costa Rica, by the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea to the south and north, respectively, and is located in the central part of the American continent [26]. Panama has an extension of 2988.3 km in length on its coasts, where 1700.6 km correspond to the Pacific coast and 1287.7 km to the Caribbean coast [15,27,28]. The 2023 census reported a population of 4,064,780 people, where roughly 50% of the population lives within the coastal zone [15]. These characteristics make Panama a critical case study for exploring the role of sustainable concrete in enhancing coastal resilience.

2.2. Identification of Vulnerable Areas in Panama

To accurately reflect the situation in Panama regarding climate change, it is essential to consider the country’s local characteristics and its exposure to frequent natural hazards in the region, such as floods and landslides. Knowing the degree of vulnerability to which coastal areas are exposed enables informed decisions to be made that address the challenges posed by sea level rise for coastal habitats.

The permanent inundation map for 2050 based on the SSP5-8.5 IPCC scenario [29], developed by the Department of Adaptation and Resilience of the Ministry of Environment of Panama, was used in this study [15]. This map was produced as part of a project conducted in collaboration with the Hydraulic Research Center of Cantabria, Spain, aimed at evaluating the impacts and vulnerabilities associated with marine dynamics and sea level rise [30]. The bathtub method (BTM) was used as the flooding model, a widely used approach in large-scale national studies due to its simplicity and computational efficiency. This methodology allowed for the identification of coastal areas potentially exposed to permanent flooding by 2050, providing critical information to guide resilience planning.

Geographic information from this map was used to identify areas most exposed to coastal flooding due to rising sea levels in the Republic of Panama’s different municipalities. By combining official projections with contextual evidence on the effects of climate change such as national and international reports and databases and peer-reviewed journal articles, the study established a spatial baseline of Panama’s coastal vulnerability.

2.3. Bibliometric Analysis

The VOSviewer software (v. 1.6.20) [31] was used to construct and visualize bibliometric networks showing associations between elements of literature related to sustainable concrete construction, which contributes to reducing emissions and the use of raw materials. The bibliographic reference search was conducted through the Science Direct scientific literature database, known for its extensive repository of peer-reviewed scientific publications.

For the bibliometric analysis, the corresponding information was downloaded, resulting in 2513 words. To create an optimal network that is easy to read and interpret on the map, approximately 100 words were used. Therefore, a minimum of 3 occurrences per term was used, which allowed reduced the number of nodes, resulting in a threshold of 142 selected words. Furthermore, to improve the unification of terms, terms that, although written slightly differently, shared the same conceptual meaning (e.g., circularity with circular economy) were grouped or replaced. This step was key to avoiding duplication and ensuring a more accurate representation of the topics addressed in the analyzed literature. Although this approach may exclude some emerging but less frequently cited terms, the core concepts and dominant research lines are identified, rather than every emerging topic. These concepts and research lines guided the literature review of the study.

2.4. Literature Review on Sustainable Concrete

Given the limited availability of literature in Panama on the use of sustainable concrete as a resilient material against climate change impacts, this study undertakes a systematic literature review. This review integrates key concepts, including climate change, resilience, and sustainable concrete, while incorporating relevant documents and data from local institutions to contextualize the findings within the Panamanian setting.

The literature review was conducted through a comprehensive literature search, utilizing a combination of keywords and Boolean operators. Documents were screened in two stages: first by title and abstract relevance, and second by full-text analysis. Inclusion criteria were (i) peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports published from 2015 to 2025; (ii) language; and (iii) open access. Exclusion criteria included studies without full-text access and non-technical literature.

Selected documents included articles that indicated strategies to create concrete structures that are sustainable through different methodologies such as supplementary cementitious materials, circular economy, carbon capture, among others, and that can be resilient to climate change phenomena such as intense rains that often produce floods, landslides and affect many sectors including infrastructure, causing an imbalance in communities as a result of the total or partial destruction of residential or commercial structures, drinking water supply networks, aqueduct systems, communication routes, among others.

To contextualize global findings, the literature review on sustainable concrete was complemented by a targeted examination of current national regulations governing concrete production in Panama. This step was essential for contextualizing international findings within the country’s regulatory framework and for identifying gaps that may limit the adoption of innovative, lower-impact concretes. By integrating both scientific evidence and technical standards, the study provides a more comprehensive perspective on the feasibility and challenges of implementing sustainable concrete practices in Panama.

2.5. Identification of Concrete Elements and Structures Used on Coasts

An inventory of the most frequently used concrete elements and structures in coastal areas was developed, validated through a bibliographic consultation, and based on the technical experience of the authors. Sources included peer-reviewed studies and open-access repositories. To illustrate these elements and explain their functionality in enhancing resilience to the effects of climate change, images licensed under Creative Commons were used. The analysis includes both structures commonly used internationally, and specific examples applied in different locations, including relevant cases in Panama. This step situates sustainable concrete practices within the broader context of Panama’s structural and ecological resilience needs.

2.6. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) Analysis

A Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis was conducted to evaluate the socioeconomic factors related to the adoption of sustainable concrete in Panama based on the results from the previous sections.

The analysis employed a SWOT framework as a qualitative research tool to systematically categorize internal and external factors identified through a literature review, bibliometric analysis, regulatory review, and contextual data. Socioeconomic variables related to sustainable concrete production in Panama were extracted from the collected sources. The factors were synthesized into a SWOT matrix to compare enabling and limiting conditions.

3. Results

3.1. Vulnerability to Climate Change in Panama

With climate change, the frequency of extreme weather events increases, which have significant repercussions not only on the environment but also on living beings and the way they interact with it. Identifying the most aggravating climatic phenomena in Panama helped determine what types of natural disasters can occur most frequently and the geographical regions within the territory where it is necessary to implement mechanisms that contribute to building resilient communities through concrete structures. Panama is not immune to the effects of climate change, including rising sea levels, increased maximum temperatures, and intense precipitation events. Consequently, it is a country vulnerable to such effects [32].

Demographic and socioeconomic factors also increase the vulnerability of some regions to climate change. Due to its geographical position, Panama is surrounded by two large bodies of water: the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, which together form 2988.3 km of coastline. Coastal areas, due to their higher frequency of extreme weather events, tend to be more vulnerable [11,33]. In addition, structures located in these zones face greater challenges due to corrosion, which threatens their structural integrity and longevity [34].

Figure 4 showcases the permanent inundation for 2050 [25] based on the SSP5-8.5 IPCC scenario [29]. The bathtub model assumes that the water level at an offshore location will inundate the land uniformly. This model adopts no bottom friction and no coastal slope condition. In this case the analysis is based on the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and the Total Water Level (TWL). The theoretical formula is not a single equation but rather an inequality of elevations, if the ground elevation is lower than the projected TWL under a given Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP), then it is assumed that the area will be flooded. In the case of Panama, the TWL on the pacific coast ranges between 1.69 and 2.69 m, and for the Atlantic coast from 0.24 to 0.29 m for 2050 projections. Maximum values of the TWL are located within the Gulf of Panama.

Figure 4. Panama’s permanent inundation map for 2050 based on the SSP5-8.5 IPCC scenario [29]. The map shows the political division by Townships in Panama and highlights in red the areas affected by permanent flooding. Source: Shapefile provided by the Department of Adaptation and Resilience of the Ministry of Environment [25] under Open Database License Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 license (CC BY-SA 2.0).

The areas expected to be most impacted include Isla Carenero, Changuinola, and Bastimento (Bocas del Toro); the tourist area in Boca Chica and Pedregal (Chiriquí); Kusapín and Tobobe (Ngäbe-Buglé region); Río Hato, Natá, and Aguadulce (Coclé); Paris, Parita, and Llano Bonito (Herrera); Isla Iguana (Los Santos); Portobelo and Santa Isabel (Colón); La Palma and Garachiné (Darién); Punta Chame and Playa Leona (Panamá Oeste); Tocumen and Juan Díaz (Panamá) [15]. Furthermore, all islands located in the Guna Yala region are expected to be impacted by sea level rise.

The average temperature in Panama has increased significantly in recent years. According to FAO data [35] the variation in temperature in Panama between 1961 and 2023 has increased by 1.1 °C. The Regional Water Resources Committee [36] reports that by 2050 and 2100, the maximum temperature could reach 29.13 °C and 32.16 °C, respectively. The increase in global temperature increases not only sea level but also the demand for cooling systems, which leads to increased greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation [10]. Eventually, this increase in temperature over prolonged periods can trigger forest fires that utilize the flora and fauna of the area as fuel, and these fires can spread until they reach the various structures built. While these events are rare, when they happen, they can affect a large amount of land.

In the case of precipitation, in Panama, the rainy season lasts approximately 10 months, ranging from May to December, with annual rainfall varying between 1500 and 3000 mm [37]. This natural factor, when present in an extreme way, is the cause of many disaster events such as floods, overflowing rivers and landslides. On the other hand, the increase in the intensity and frequency of precipitation events causes drainage systems to become overloaded [38] affecting existing structures, causing economic losses and deterioration in people’s quality of life.

These climatological phenomena trigger a series of natural disasters that not only affect agricultural land and result in loss of life, but also damage structures, causing thousands of dollars in losses and entailing economic expenses, increased pollution, and resource depletion.

The Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) [7] reported a total of 326 flood events, 168 storm events, 34 wet mass displacements, 25 drought events between 2015 and 2022 and indicate that there were 584 events related to climate change in the Latin American and Caribbean region. In Panama, the most common natural disaster events are floods, with a high number of cases in the province of Panama, followed by the province of Chiriqui, and landslides, mostly present in the Metropolitan Region of the Republic of Panama. The most relevant effects of climate change for the Republic of Panama are described below.

3.1.1. Sea Level Rise

Global warming causes sea level rise, which varies from place to place. According to the Earth Information Center [39] in Panama the sea level has risen 10 cm since 1993. The most affected areas are the coasts of the Western, Central and Eastern Pacific, and the Western and Eastern Caribbean are highly exposed due to sea level rise [37].

According to UNESCO, 40% of the world’s population lives less than 100 km from the coast, which is why, in order to achieve its protection, government agencies are obliged to create elements that can protect it from erosion [33]. Sometimes, these elements are composed of concrete, as in the case of some breakwaters, walls, and dikes, among others. It is worth mentioning that chloride ingress due to exposure to seawater significantly threatens reinforced concrete [40]. These disasters, exacerbated by climate change, have disproportionately harmed the most vulnerable communities over the years.

The following section further illustrates such concrete structures for coastal resilience.

3.1.2. Floods

Floods are one of the most frequent natural disasters [41] and can cause several effects, not only in the loss of lives and agricultural lands, but also in the destruction of structures such as residences, bridges, roads, wastewater collection systems, and electricity transmission networks. The main generator of this meteorological phenomenon is rain [42]. From 2016 to 2021, several flooding events have been reported throughout the national territory and have covered a total of 1229 damaged homes [43]. The areas with the highest concurrence of flood events have been the province of Panama, followed by Chiriquí. However, Cativá, a province in Colón, is an area that presents vulnerability due to multiple factors, with a total of 300 houses destroyed and 1435 people affected during the same period.

3.1.3. Strong Winds

Wind speed has a consequence in the increase in the level of the storm surge, which causes the risk of flooding in coastal areas [33]. In addition, this type of disaster not only compromises vertical structures but also causes damage and deterioration to transportation roads due to the fall of trees, electric poles, and other objects.

3.1.4. Landslides

They are the second most common type of disaster and are mostly caused by heavy rainfall, deforestation, and earthquakes. The lack of vegetation, combined with the construction of infrastructures, increases the instability of the soils. These, in turn, can damage the same structures due to the rotation of the foundation of pillars or bridge abutments. In Panama, the number of events for this type of natural disaster is 345 for the years from 2016 to 2021 and the most affected provinces are again led by Panama, followed by Colón [43].

3.2. Concrete Elements and Structures for Coastal Resilience

Three approaches to coastal protection are identified: green (natural), gray (structural) and hybrid solutions. In certain situations, local conditions limit the viability of nature-based options, necessitating the use of rigid infrastructures or, sometimes, a combination of both strategies as a more appropriate alternative [44].

In this sense, certain mechanisms have been established for coastal protection, many of them based on concrete structures, since it is a material that, due to its properties, provides characteristics of durability and resistance, and it is also one of the most used thanks to its relatively low cost compared to other materials. Commonly, gray infrastructures are built to protect populations and infrastructure against coastal erosion, sea level rise, wave energy and storm impacts [45].

3.2.1. Coastal Protection Structures

Among the most commonly used concrete elements are revetments [44,46], which are sloped structures placed on banks or shorelines to absorb wave energy and reduce erosion. Breakwaters [44,46], which can be either emerged or submerged, are constructed offshore to dissipate wave energy before it reaches the coast; the rubble-mound type is widely used. The L-block breakwater is a specially designed breakwater system made from concrete [47]. Groynes [44,46], often made of concrete and extending perpendicularly from the shore, help trap sediments transported by longshore drift, thus stabilizing beaches. These can also be emerged or submerged, depending on design needs. Seawalls are vertical or sloped concrete barriers built directly along the coastline to defend against wave impact and prevent inland flooding. Concrete seawalls [44,48], are especially valued for their strength and long-term performance. Sea dikes [44], offer similar protection by acting as barriers to high tides and storm surges. Jetties [44], constructed at river mouths or harbor entrances, control sediment deposition and maintain navigable waterways. Figure 5 illustrates key elements and structures that contribute to coastal resilience.

Figure 5. Concrete elements and structures for coastal protection. (a) Revetment, Dubai. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-SA-4.0 l license [49]. (b) Breakwater system, Calheta, Portugal. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-SA-4.0 license [50]. (c) Groynes in San Carlos coastal zone, Panama. Original image by Gisselle Guerra-Chanis. (d) Seawall, Watcome Beach, United Kingdom. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-SA-2.0 license [51]. (e) Sea dikes, Ventnor, United Kingdom. Source: Creative Commons, Public Domain [52]. (f) Jetty, California, United States. Sources: Creative Commons, CC-BY-SA-3.0 license [53].

All these concrete-based coastal defenses contribute significantly to the resilience of coastal communities, enabling them to better withstand the impacts of climate change and rising sea levels. In addition to these traditional structures, artificial reefs made from precast concrete rings represent a hybrid solution, combining ecological restoration with wave attenuation [54,55]. There are also 3D printed artificial coral reefs [56,57]. These reef systems foster biodiversity while strengthening the natural defenses of shorelines (Figure 6).

Figure 6. (a) Artificial coral reefs from precast concrete rings. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-2.0 license [58]; (b) 3D-Printed artificial coral reefs in Florida, United Stated. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-SA-3.0 license [59].

3.2.2. Flood Control and Flood-Resistant Elements and Structures

Pervious concrete pavements represent an effective solution for stormwater management, especially in areas where impermeable soils and the pore size of the permeable pavement system (PPS) limit the infiltration capacity [60]. Figure 7 shows how permeable concrete is occasionally combined with a conventional sloped concrete sidewalk to facilitate drainage. To improve its performance, innovative filter layers can be incorporated into the system. In addition, the use of recycled aggregates in the design of the mixture constitutes a sustainable alternative; however, it is critical to carefully evaluate its effect on compressive strength to ensure the structural integrity of the pavement.

Figure 7. Permeable concrete pavement for flood control in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-2.0 license [61].

Raising housing above the baseline flood level has been used as an effective strategy to reduce vulnerability to climate-related disasters, especially in flood-prone coastal regions (Figure 8). In areas such as the Gulf Coast, erecting houses with concrete slabs on the ground (SOG) has proven to be an effective measure to mitigate the damage caused by recurrent flooding events [62]. This practice is also relevant in countries such as Pakistan, one of the most affected by climate change due to the high frequency of floods, droughts and earthquakes [63]. A study of 840 flood-affected households in that country found that the main adaptation measures included strengthening foundations, raising floors, taking precautionary measures and using reinforced materials in construction [63].

Figure 8. Elevated houses. A Bruynzeel house (Bruynzeelwoning in Dutch) in Suriname. Even when the house is wooden-made, it is usually built on storey-high concrete piles. Source: Creative Commons, CC-Zero license [64].

Dams are fundamental hydraulic infrastructures whose main function is to retain, store and regulate the flow of water, allowing its release in a gradual and controlled manner (Figure 9). These structures are essential for the comprehensive management of water resources, especially in areas vulnerable to extreme weather events such as heavy rains or floods [16]. Its construction is usually made of conventional concrete or roller-compacted concrete, a type of mixture that allows greater speed and efficiency in the execution of large volumes. Most dams work by gravity, which means that their own weight is what allows them to resist the pressure of the reservoir water. By regulating river flow and retaining surpluses during flood events, dams mitigate the risk of flooding in low-lying or populated areas downstream. In addition, many of these structures also serve additional functions, such as hydroelectric power generation, drinking water supply, agricultural irrigation, or recreation, becoming key elements in the sustainable development of a region.

Figure 9. Flood control dams, El Cercado Dam, Río Ranchería, La Guajira, Colombia. Source: Creative Commons, CC-BY-SA-4.0 license [65].

3.2.3. Extreme Event Mitigation Structures

Resilient solutions to tornadoes and hurricanes include the use of homes with prefabricated concrete structural elements, specifically designed to withstand extreme weather conditions [16]. These constructions offer high wind resistance, withstanding speeds of up to 280 km/h, making them a safe choice for regions prone to hurricanes. Additionally, its elevated design, positioned above ground level, enhances its performance against flooding, thereby reducing the risk of water damage. This type of infrastructure represents an effective strategy to protect vulnerable communities from natural disasters. A well-known example is the Sand Palace (Figure 10), whose structure suffered minor damage following the Category 5 Hurricane Michael that arrived near Mexico Beach, Florida, on 9 October 2018 [66].

Figure 10. Sand Palace (circled in red) survived Hurricane Michael in Mexico Beach, Florida, United States. Source: Creative Commons, Public domain [67].

3.2.4. Landslide Mitigation Structures

Concrete plays a central role in slope stabilization and landslide mitigation, particularly in coastal and riverine areas (Figure 11) where heavy rainfall and flooding exacerbate soil instability. Common structural measures include reinforced concrete retaining walls, crib walls, and shotcrete facing, which provide direct slope reinforcement; concrete-lined drainage channels, which reduce pore water pressure by diverting runoff; and check dams that trap debris flows. These systems are often integrated with vegetation cover to enhance long-term stability. Furthermore, concrete drainage systems mitigate landslides.

Figure 11. Palanas Mini-Dam, Maasim River walls-slope protection. Source: Creative Commons, CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication [68].

3.2.5. Cases of Mechanisms Adopted in Panama

Among these mechanisms adopted in Panama is the construction of the La Cinta Costera protection, a 3 km-long structure manufactured with approximately 30,000 Xblocs, each measuring 0.75 m³ (Figure 12). For the protection of part of the port of San Cristóbal, located in the province of Colón, the installation of more than 500 concrete dolos, each weighing approximately 8 tons, was carried out. This work was carried out by the Panama Canal Authority for the protection of the entrance to this interoceanic waterway.

Figure 12. Using Xblocs to protect the Cinta Costera built in 2009, Panama City, Panama. Original image by Kathleen J. Castillo-Martínez.

As a protection system, Puerto Vacamonte, located in the Arraiján district, Province of Panama Oeste, has built an artificial breakwater shelter measuring 1050 m in length, offering protection against waves. However, there is no record that these constructions incorporate sustainability principles to mitigate the adverse impacts of the construction industry.

3.3. Sustainable Concrete

A bibliometric analysis reveals that the largest nodes represent the most important or highly connected topics, including climate change, sustainability, concrete, resilience, durability, and corrosion. These nodes indicate the dominant lines of inquiry that have shaped the scientific discussion around sustainable concrete and its role in climate adaptation. Text communities, or “clusters,” are grouped together by terms that are closely related to each other, representing a theme or line of research. Figure 13 shows clusters identified by the colors red, yellow, purple, green, and blue, which link recurring themes such as low-carbon materials, life cycle assessment, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), and durability under marine conditions. Each cluster highlights how literature converges on shared problems, while also diverging into specific subfields, from technical performance to policy-oriented sustainability.

Figure 13. Bibliometric network. Source: Prepared by the authors using VOSviewer software.

This visualization is particularly useful for understanding how specific research relates to broader concerns about sustainability and climate change, demonstrating the interconnected nature of materials science, environmental impact, and resilience research. For instance, terms associated with corrosion and durability often overlap with resilience, showing how long-term structural performance is central to both sustainability and climate adaptation. Similarly, clusters connecting SCMs, circular economy, and CO₂ reduction reflect the increasing integration of environmental goals into concrete research. By identifying these relationships, the bibliometric mapping not only illustrates existing research priorities but also points to emerging opportunities for interdisciplinary collaboration. In the context of Panama, such insights provide a valuable foundation for aligning sustainable concrete applications with national needs for resilient coastal infrastructure.

3.3.1. International Sustainable Concrete Alternatives

Given the limited availability of experimental data in Panama, this study integrates international evidence with documented local cases, providing both a reference framework and a context-specific perspective, while also underscoring the need for further Panamanian research on sustainable concrete performance.

Table 1 summarizes sustainable concrete alternatives identified in the literature, including supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, slag, silica fume, and metakaolin, as well as innovations like CO₂ capture and utilization. These materials contribute to lowering the carbon footprint of concrete while enhancing resilience. However, their adoption in Panama remains limited by availability, costs, and regulatory gaps, emphasizing both the opportunities and the challenges for implementation.

Table 1. Sustainable concrete alternatives according to the literature review.

Alternatives	Characteristics	Availability in Panama *	Author
Granulated blast furnace slag	It is a by-product of the manufacture of cast iron Pozzolanic capacity Resistance to chloride ion penetration Its durability performance is less affected by weather changes Using 50% slag can reduce carbon emissions by up to 40% and energy consumption by 30%	Imported in the past	[6,69,70]
Basalt fiber	Improves the durability of geopolymer concrete		[70,71]
Seawater and sea sand	For its application, it is necessary to take certain measures. The incorporation of SCM decreases the penetration of chloride ions through the refined pore structure of the cementitious matrix, this is due to filler affect, pozzolanic reaction, and accelerated hydration. The addition of SCM, corrosion inhibitors and the adoption of cathodic protection measures ensure the long-term durability of concretes with water and sea sand	Available	[72]
Plastic waste	Waste consumer and industrial plastics that serve as a partial replacement in aggregates and are suitable for non-load-bearing structures	Available	[69]
Cement kiln powder	It serves as a partial cement replacement. Improves the strength and durability of concrete	Available	[69]
Fly ash (FA)	Coal combustion product and works as a partial replacement for Portland cement It can produce high-performance concrete. It has the potential to reduce the mobility of chloride ions through pozzolanic reactions. It can reduce emissions by up to 50%	Imported	[6,17,40,69,70]
Silica fume (SF)	It originates from the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys and works as a partial replacement for Portland cement. It can improve the strength and durability of concrete. It has the potential to reduce the mobility of chloride ions through pozzolanic reactions	Imported	[6,22,40,69]
Metakaolin	It is a type of calcined kaolin clay that has a strong pozzolanic reactivity and offers benefits such as improving the strength and durability of concrete. It can partially replace cement. The amorphous nature of calcined clay enhances sulfate attack, improves crack resistance, and reduces alkali-silica reaction. Replacement of up to 25% with metakaolin has improved resistance to chloride ions.		[6,22,40,69]
Recycled ceramic powder	It serves as a partial replacement for cement.	Available	[6,22,73]
Biomass ash	From the combustion of plant and animal waste.	Available	[73]
Carbon capture and utilization	CO2 from industrial processes is captured and used in the production process of concrete materials	Available	[74]
Cupola slag	Certain properties such as compressive strength are increased when replaced by a certain content of cupola slag		[75]

* Availability does not necessary mean that it is used.

Some of these studies have shown that sustainable concrete mixtures made with SCM content, if designed with the right proportion of alternative material, can match and even improve some properties of the concrete. Pozzolanic cement is frequently used when it is desired to improve the properties of marine structures or constructions that require strong resistance to sulfates [22]. Shahedan et al. [70] describes that additives such as silica fume, fly ash, blast furnace slag and basalt fibers not only reduce CO₂ emissions but also provide improvements in concrete properties such as lower permeability, compressive strength, corrosion resistance, among others. The alternatives shown are suitable for environments where they are exposed to physical chloride attacks. However, the use of SCM will depend on the availability of waste or by-products of the industry in each region [17].

It is important to note that the dosage to be used of each of these SCM will depend on the type of cement with which you are working, which is why it is necessary to carry out a more in-depth analysis to determine the optimal material to use. Also, Meshram (2023) [75] notes that adding cupola slag in concrete mixtures is less permeable, and that reviewed studies related to durability reveal favorable qualities such as increased resistance to harsh environments, lower water absorption, and chloride content within the allowable limits of standards.

3.3.2. Sustainable Concrete Alternatives in Panama

In Panama, fuel burning accounts for 39% of greenhouse gases, of which 11.1% belongs to the manufacturing and construction industry [67]. That is why strategies are urgently needed to minimize the pollutants emitted by this industry, which also have the potential to improve the properties of concrete, thereby contributing to its resilience. In recent years, the construction sector has made an effort to be part of a necessary change, implementing innovative technologies in sustainable concrete that reduce CO₂ emissions. It has also focused on other environmental aspects, such as the water footprint, waste generation, and resource depletion.

Imported SCMs are utilized to enhance the performance of concrete in terms of strength, durability, and temperature control. In this case, imported SCMs are not used to reduce the carbon footprint of cement and concrete; they may even increase the carbon footprint if the transportation costs associated with their import are considered. A life cycle assessment (LCA) would enable evaluation of the benefits of SCM substitution against the transportation footprint. Gursel and Ostertag (2016) conducted an LCA in Singapore to assess the environmental performance of cement and concrete with SCMs [76], highlighting the type of context-specific data that would be necessary to perform a similar study in Panama. The LCA would have to be carried out for different concrete mix designs. However, this analysis is currently limited by the lack of Panama-specific data, such as local emission factors, which prevents an accurate balancing of these impacts. Moreover, a deeper understanding of how SCMs respond to the effects of climate change is necessary to modify construction practices [19]. The use of innovative technologies in concrete offers a significant opportunity to drive more sustainable and resilient constructions [68]. Panama has existing applications of sustainable concretes as follows.

Vertua Concrete

This line of concrete with reduced CO₂ emissions (from 15% to more than 40%) reduces the environmental impact and supports climate change mitigation actions with the goal of supplying products with zero net emissions by 2050 that maintain their qualities of strength, durability and protection from corrosive agents such as sulfates, seawater, etc. It has three lines that are Vertua Classic, Vertua Plus and Vertua Ultra, each with a different carbon footprint (200, 170 and 100 kg CO₂/m³, respectively) [77].

Greentec

Alia, a Panamanian company specializing in concrete, aggregates, and coatings, has introduced Greentec as an innovative sustainable construction product in Panama [78]. Developed in collaboration with CarbonCure’s advanced technology, Greentec incorporates captured CO₂, which is injected into fresh concrete during mixing. This process not only permanently stores carbon but can also enhance compressive strength, allowing reductions in cement content without compromising performance. According to Alia, more than 10,083 trucks of Greentec concrete have been delivered to date, representing over 350 tons of CO₂ equivalent sequestered. This initiative demonstrates a concrete step toward reducing emissions in Panama’s construction sector.

Argos Pozzolan

Argos Panama markets ground pozzolan as a supplementary cementitious material for use in concrete production [79]. Pozzolan acts as an active mineral additive that enhances the hydration process, improves microstructure, and contributes to long-term performance. Its use increases durability, reduces permeability, and enhances resistance to aggressive agents such as sulfates and chlorides, which are common in marine and tropical environments. By partially replacing Portland cement, pozzolan also lowers clinker demand, thereby reducing CO₂ emissions associated with cement production. Incorporating pozzolan into cement or concrete enables the design of more sustainable mixtures capable of withstanding harsh environmental conditions.

Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs)

At least three environmental declarations of concrete mix products were found in Panama, declared by Argos [80], Cemex [81] and Concretex [82]. These EPDs provide quantified and verified information on the environmental impact of a product (climate change, ozone depletion, acidification, eutrophication, photochemical ozone creation, among others) and are based on life cycle analysis. In addition, they allow comparison and selection between products that fulfill the same function [83].

These technologies and efforts not only reinforce the competitiveness of companies but also underscore the commitment and address the industry’s challenges that have contributed significantly to climate change for many years.

Current Regulations for Concrete Production in Panama

Although Panama has current cement regulations (DGNTI 5—COPANIT) [84] that recognize both traditional (ASTM C150) [85] and performance-based (ASTM C1157) [86], which is open to the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) and the reduction in the carbon footprint, regulatory gaps still persist that limit the full adoption of innovative and environmentally lower-impact concretes.

Among them, the absence of a specific national standard for concrete stands out, the formulation of which has been identified as a priority by the Panamanian Association of Concrete Producers (APACRETO). Likewise, although the Panamanian Structural Regulation [87] (based on ACI 318) [88] allows the use of sustainable concrete with replacement materials since 2014; its application has been subject to the project owner’s approval since 2019, which can discourage innovation. It was only in 2025, with the incorporation of Appendix C Sustainability and Resilience into ACI 318 and references to ACI 323 (ACI CODE-323-24: Low-Carbon Concrete—Code Requirements and Commentary) [89], that clear definitions of sustainable concrete and the requirement to calculate Global Warming Potential (GWP) were introduced, an important step, but still in the early stages.

In addition, although there are international references such as ACI ITG-10.1R-18 (Report on Alternative Cements) [90], ACI ITG-10R-18 (Practitioner’s Guide for alternative cements) [91] and ACI 130 (ACI PRC-130-19: Report on the Role of Materials in Sustainable Concrete Construction [92], ACI PRC-130.1-25: Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) of Cement-Based Products: State of Practice and Path Forward—TechNote [93]) that support the use of fly ash, slag, calcined clays and sustainable construction practices, their application in Panama is not yet fully harmonized or adapted to the local reality.

These gaps highlight the need to update and develop national standards that contemplate not only strength and durability criteria, but also sustainability and life cycle criteria. Likewise, it is necessary to move towards technical frameworks that regulate the recycling of aggregates and that formally recognize cement for performance in public tenders, thus facilitating the implementation of sustainable concrete practices in the country.

Socioeconomic-Focused SWOT on Sustainable Concrete

Overall, while regional variability exists (e.g., transport costs for imported SCMs), international experience shows a clear trend toward economic feasibility [94]. Sustainable concrete either matches or slightly exceeds the upfront cost of conventional mixes but generally provides lower life cycle costs due to reduced cement consumption, extended durability, and eligibility for green financing or credits.

Emerging technologies such as CarbonCure used in Greentec concrete in Panama provide another pathway. According to CarbonCure’s industry reports, producers in North America have implemented the technology at scale without significant additional production costs, in some cases reporting net savings due to improved strength performance that allows for cement reduction [78]. On the other hand, Vertua (reduced CO₂ emissions) and ground pozzolan as a SCM are also commercially available in Panama. In theory, if companies market these concretes, it is because they are economically viable.

Beyond the economic and technical dimensions, the adoption of sustainable concrete in Panama carries significant social implications. For instance, the construction sector contributes approximately 17% of Panama’s GDP [95] and is a major source of employment, with most construction relying on concrete as the primary material. Transitioning to sustainable concretes can help secure these jobs in the long term by aligning local industry with global low-carbon trends, ensuring competitiveness and workforce stability.

Moreover, the construction of coastal resilience structures, such as seawalls, breakwaters, and flood control infrastructure, has a direct impact on communities by protecting lives, livelihoods, and critical assets from climate-related risks. A greater emphasis on how sustainable concrete adoption can support social resilience, reduce vulnerability, and create inclusive employment opportunities would provide a more holistic understanding of its role in Panama’s sustainable development.

To better understand the socioeconomic factors that shape the adoption of sustainable concrete in Panama, a SWOT analysis was conducted as part of this study. The analysis provided a structured framework to examine the main drivers and limitations affecting implementation. The results highlight both the opportunities for innovation that can strengthen the sector and the barriers that may slow down or restrict adoption. This balance of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats was essential to capture the current panorama.

Figure 14 presents a synthesis of these findings, offering a clear overview of enabling and limiting conditions for sustainable concrete in Panama.

Figure 14. SWOT matrix summarizing the socioeconomic aspects related to the adoption of sustainable concrete in Panama.

3.4. Nature-Based Solutions as a Complement to Cement-Based Solutions

The failure of structures built to prevent coastal flooding can trigger catastrophic impacts on societies and ecosystems. in this sense, experts have introduced other types of solutions to address these deficiencies [42]. Nature-based solutions (NBS) are strategies that utilize natural processes and employ innovative and efficient approaches to adapt to climate change, making them a potential strategy to enhance urban resilience [96]. However, it should be noted that NBS cannot be applied in a general way; that is, it will depend on each case and the specific characteristics of the area. Furthermore, Kumar et al. [42] note the lack of an automated list of methodologies, manuals, or guidelines for implementing and analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of NBS.

In Panama, there is a Nature-based Solutions (NBS) Manual for Climate Change Management [97] under review. These NBS contribute to urban resilience by reducing impervious surfaces, which in turn mitigate some of the impacts of extreme weather events, such as rainfall. For instance, impermeability rates have increased in areas where vegetation previously existed but are now covered by concrete structures and other materials. Ferrario et al. [96] observed through a meta-analysis of NBS, that the studies consulted indicated the reduction in runoff through bioretention cells, green roofs, parks and trees by 77%, 60%, 57% and 14%, respectively.

On the other hand, mangrove ecosystems are well known not only for absorbing and storing a large amount of carbon but also for protecting coastlines from erosion by waves. This is how it becomes a great tool for both environmental and economic sustainability, since it reduces the retreat of the coastline and the imperative need to have to build structures known as breakwaters, which in many cases are usually made of materials such as concrete, thus reducing the emission of greenhouse gases and the depletion of resources.

Panama has 12 types of mangroves and an area of approximately 174,435 hectares, with the largest area located in the Gulf of San Miguel and Chiriqui. Reforestation projects are currently being carried out or will be carried out with the participation of the National Government, private enterprise and international organizations [98]. Marshes are also another type of wetland that provides tidal protection [42].

The landslide process can be slowed down by woody plants, and some grass varieties support slope stability [42]. Trees, through their root systems, help stabilize mountain slopes and slow soil erosion, thereby mitigating natural disasters caused by landslides. Between 2017 and 2021, in Panama, there were a total of 16,544.53 hectares reforested, of which in 2020 and 2021, 4746.73 hectares were reforested, an action that was carried out thanks to the work of the Ministry of Environment in conjunction with other governmental and non-governmental entities [26]. Together with gray infrastructure (concrete and cement-based elements and structures), green infrastructure (natured based solutions) has the potential to increase coastal resilience to climate change [44].

In Panama, the NBS that have been implemented consist mainly of mangroves and corals. These solutions are mostly implemented as they are the most studied due to their fundamental role in coastal protection, habitats of various species and also constitute an important livelihood of coastal communities. While structures built from concrete fulfill an important function of protection and stabilization on coasts, their single use can lead to environmental and socioeconomic impacts, causing disturbances in habitat, an imbalance of ecosystems, and altering the interactions of coastal communities. Hybrid infrastructure, also known as green-gray infrastructure, incorporates conventional engineering elements, such as the use of concrete, with nature-based solutions that create benefits not only limited to the protection of coastal erosion but also promote the development of various species.

An example of hybrid infrastructure is coral reefs, which simulate marine ecosystems and contribute to their restoration when degraded, while also serving as a refuge for benthic organisms. In addition, they can dissipate up to 90% of wave energy. The geometry with which coral reefs are designed contributes to their performance, Norris et al. [99] proposed several artificial reef systems consisting of reefs constructed in the form of a hexagonal net, hexagonal gyroid net, and a combination of both, demonstrating that, in general, all of these designs reduce wave energy by 50% to 90% under different wave conditions.

However, there is another important factor to consider; due to its high alkalinity, the manufacture of coral reefs with Portland cement often presents challenges by impeding the growth of marine life, so the use of SCM [100,101] sulfoaluminate cement [102,103] geopolymer concrete [101] oyster shells [104,105] is proposed that enhance the colonization of various marine organisms. Specifically, Rupasingle et al. [105] evaluated the feasibility of incorporating crushed oyster shells as a substitute for coarse aggregates to create a permeable concrete material that serves for the construction of living structures, improving the adhesion of mussel larvae by incorporating the use of ground granulated blast furnace slag to improve compressive strength properties and lowering pH levels in the concrete leading to a better substrate for marine organisms.

Ozment et al. (2021) identified 156 NBS projects across Latin America and the Caribbean. either on their own or in combination with gray infrastructure, to reduce landslide risk, or help manage urban flooding, river flooding, or coastal flooding and erosion [106]. For instance, the Bahamas Ministry of Works and Urban Development obtained a $35 million loan from the IDB to build coastal resilience through green-gray infrastructure that combines seawalls and levees with coastal ecosystem management to optimize protection of coastal infrastructure and communities [107]. Furthermore, Hernández-Delgado (2024) presents a review of restoration strategies designed for small island scenarios [108]. Case-specific design frameworks for hybrid infrastructure emphasize tailoring gray and green measures to local conditions, particularly in vulnerable coastal and island contexts. Hybrid approaches integrate engineered structures such as sea walls, revetments, breakwaters, groins, gabions, and sediment management with ecological measures like artificial reefs, living shorelines, and coral restoration. While gray infrastructure provides immediate protection against erosion and flooding, it can exacerbate adjacent impacts if applied alone. Combining these with nature-based solutions enhances biodiversity, reduces wave energy, and supports long-term resilience.

Although these solutions serve as a guide to be implemented in the Panamanian geographical context, more in-depth studies are required that involve the climatological behavior of each region, the life zones and the dynamics of the sediments. Furthermore, a significant gap remains in the application of hybrid infrastructure, particularly in Latin American countries and regions with climatic conditions similar to those of Panama, which has a humid tropical climate

4. Discussion

Panama, with more than 2900 km of coastline spanning both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts, faces a high vulnerability to the effects of climate change. The intensification of extreme weather events, such as torrential rains, landslides, and hurricanes, poses a direct challenge to the safety and well-being of coastal populations. This situation is exacerbated by socio-economic factors such as disorderly urban growth, pressure on ecosystems and insufficient land use planning. Recent data indicate that the average temperature has increased by 1.1 °C between 1961 and 2023, with even higher projections for 2050 and 2100. Floods and landslides have already affected thousands of homes, while rising sea levels threaten to displace entire communities. Protective measures to mitigate the risk of coastal flooding and erosion should include institutional measures, preparedness and prevention actions, and structural interventions [46]. In this context, coastal resilience becomes a national priority, and concrete emerges as a key material in adaptation strategies.

Concrete structures are a key solution for protecting coastal areas. Elements such as breakwaters, dikes, retaining walls and dams mitigate wave energy, prevent erosion and control floods; however, they can represent alterations to biological connectivity. In addition, more innovative solutions, such as oyster artificial reefs with precast concrete rings, integrate ecological and engineering goals for the coast. These structures can bolster coastal defense while restoring marine habitats. In Panama, projects such as the breakwater of the Port of Vacamonte, the protection of the Cinta Costera and the installation of concrete dolos in Colón show the implementation of these elements. The possibility of designing concretes with greater durability, resistance to marine corrosion and the ability to integrate with nature-based solutions opens up new opportunities to strengthen coastal infrastructure without compromising its environment.

However, the use of concrete structures also presents challenges. Constant exposure to marine environments with high concentrations of chlorides and sulfates accelerates the corrosion process in reinforcing steel, compromising its structural integrity. Rising global temperatures can cause thermal cracking, while extreme winds and storm surges induce dynamic loads that demand robust and flexible designs. Additionally, premature aging of structures due to extreme conditions reduces their useful life and generates increased maintenance needs. Zhang et al. [38] They based their study on 233 coastal counties in the United States, where they determined that both humidity and temperature promote corrosion induced by chlorides, decreasing the concrete’s lifespan from 0.7% to 2.7%. These technical challenges are compounded by the need for updated design codes and standards that incorporate climate change as a design variable. Innovation in concrete formulation, including admixtures, corrosion inhibitors, and advanced curing techniques, becomes crucial in confronting these threats and ensuring structural resilience.

The durability of concrete will depend on factors such as absorption, permeability and diffusion; however, mechanical properties also play an important role and are linked to durability since various materials or substances are easily accessible through the formation of cracks in concrete structures [14]. Chloride ions present in seawater cause corrosion [70,72] which is one of the main causes of the deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Corrosion increases the deterioration of structures and can also increase the vulnerability of buildings to earthquakes [33]. In this sense, extreme meteorological events have an influence on the reduction in the useful life of reinforced concrete structures. Durability tests of sustainable concrete are needed.

It is important to note that not all concrete used in coastal resilience applications functions as structural concrete. For example, artificial reefs made of concrete are not structural elements and therefore do not necessarily require steel reinforcement, with performance requirements that differ from those of reinforced seawalls and other structural elements. Xbloc units are another example of unreinforced concrete elements designed for hydraulic stability rather than structural loading. In such applications, durability concerns related to reinforcement corrosion from chloride ingress are less critical; however, other factors, such as surface degradation, sulfate attack, or long-term exposure to marine conditions, may still influence performance.

Concrete production is not only linked to climate change due to its carbon dioxide emissions, mainly derived from cement production, but also entails other significant environmental impacts. Among these are the water footprint associated with intensive water use, the generation of waste during construction, the intensive extraction of aggregates that causes ecological alterations in rivers and quarry areas, and the depletion of non-renewable natural resources. The transport of heavy materials also generates air pollution and noise, affecting human health and ecosystems. Additionally, the waterproofing of soil generated by concrete surfaces contributes to habitat loss and increased surface runoff, thereby intensifying the risk of urban flooding. Consequently, the approach towards more sustainable production and use of concrete cannot be limited to reducing carbon emissions but must incorporate a holistic view of all its environmental impacts.

Cement, as the primary binder in concrete, accounts for 7 to 8% of global CO₂ emissions, primarily due to the calcination process of limestone and the use of fossil fuels. Therefore, reducing reliance on clinker, the most carbon-intensive component of cement, is essential. In this sense, the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume, metakaolin, or recycled glass powder makes it possible to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of concrete without compromising its performance. Although this study presents international sustainable concrete alternatives, their direct application to the Panamanian context is not always feasible due to differences in local resources, environmental conditions, and regulatory frameworks.

Nevertheless, Panama already has tangible examples such as Vertua concrete, Argos’ ground pozzolan and Greentec, which incorporate carbon capture technologies and partial clinker substitutions, achieving reductions of up to 40% in emissions. Additionally, Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) from local manufacturers enable informed decision-making by designers and buyers, promoting the adoption of low-impact environmental solutions in the construction industry.

The introduction of sustainable concretes in Panama, such as Vertua, Greentec, and Argos pozzolan, represents a significant step toward reducing the carbon footprint of coastal infrastructure. However, evidence on their long-term performance under marine exposure remains limited. While international studies on concretes incorporating supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) and CO₂ injection technologies indicate improved durability through reduced permeability, enhanced chloride resistance, and increased strength, such results cannot be assumed identical in Panama’s tropical, high-humidity, and saline environments. Local marine conditions, characterized by elevated temperatures, aggressive chloride ingress, and frequent wet–dry cycles, pose specific durability challenges that require systematic testing. To date, publicly available durability data on these Panamanian sustainable concretes are scarce, particularly regarding the corrosion resistance of reinforced elements, sulfate attack, and modeling long-term service life.

Few published studies on the durability of concrete in Panama under tropical climate and marine exposure could be identified. Relevant contributions include analyses of the new Panama Canal expansion that evaluated durability aspects and testing protocols in aggressive environments [109], as well as studies assessing the effect of industrial and marine environments on reinforced concrete in two Pacific cities of Panama [110] and the behavior of reinforced concrete under different microclimates [111,112]. While these works provide valuable insights into the performance of conventional reinforced concrete in Panama’s tropical and saline conditions, they do not specifically evaluate sustainable concrete alternatives such as those incorporating SCMs or carbon capture technologies. This highlights an important research gap: the need for systematic durability studies on sustainable concretes in Panama to ensure their long-term applicability in marine and coastal infrastructure. This gap underscores the need for localized experimental programs to validate their performance in coastal and marine applications, thereby ensuring that sustainability benefits are not achieved at the expense of structural integrity.

The SWOT analysis highlights both the potential and the challenges of adopting sustainable concrete in Panama. Socially, it reinforces construction as a major source of employment and safe housing, while enhancing resilience for vulnerable communities. Economically, opportunities lie in circular economic practices, reduced costs through SCM substitution, and access to carbon credits. However, weaknesses such as limited local SCM supply, higher upfront costs, and technical skill gaps persist. Threats include supply chain dependencies, regulatory delays, and industry resistance. Addressing these barriers through policy support and capacity-building is essential to scale sustainable concrete and strengthen coastal resilience.

Concrete-based structures, such as seawalls, groynes, and breakwaters, are commonly used for coastal protection; however, they can generate unintended environmental impacts. One major concern is the alteration of natural sediment transport, which can lead to increased erosion in adjacent, unprotected coastal areas. These rigid barriers may also disrupt coastal ecosystems and reduce the natural adaptive capacity of shorelines. Therefore, while effective in localized protection, their long-term use requires careful planning, environmental assessments, and consideration of alternative or hybrid solutions, such as incorporating nature-based elements, to balance structural protection with ecological sustainability and minimize negative impacts on surrounding coastal dynamics.

There are other solutions that do not necessarily involve the implementation of concrete but rather utilize elements that harness the power of nature to create adaptive measures addressing the challenges of climate change. So, strategies inspired by nature can be incorporated to address the challenges of climate change, known as nature-based solutions (NBS). Although some of these strategies have already been implemented in Panama, in many parts of the world, there are mechanisms like these that work adaptively. Reviewing international cases can is a first step towards implementing more NBS.

Gray infrastructure, represented by conventional solutions such as retaining walls or concrete breakwaters, can be strengthened by integrating with green infrastructure or nature-based solutions (NBS). This hybrid combination improves functional efficiency, reduces maintenance costs, and increases ecosystem benefits. For example, mangrove ecosystems provide protection against coastal erosion, sequester carbon, and act as a natural barrier to storm surges. In Panama, the recovery of mangroves in the Gulf of San Miguel and Chiriquí is a relevant step towards this integration. Other green solutions, such as green roofs, permeable pavements, and bioretention systems, reduce runoff and improve urban resilience to heavy rainfall. Together, these strategies must be incorporated into urban and coastal planning to maximize their effectiveness. Yet, barriers remain, including the lack of clear guidelines, limited local data availability, and a need to strengthen inter-institutional cooperation among governments, academia, and the private sector.

5. Conclusions

This review analyzed how sustainable concrete can help address the impacts of climate change in Panama by enhancing coastal resilience with lower impact. It represents the first study to integrate technical, regulatory, and socioeconomic dimensions of sustainable concrete within Panama’s coastal adaptation strategies, establishing a foundation for future research, policy development, and implementation of low-carbon, climate-resilient infrastructure in one of the most vulnerable regions of Central America.

This analysis identified that the most vulnerable areas include low-lying coastal provinces such as Panama, Colón, and Chiriquí, which are increasingly exposed to sea level rise, flooding, and erosion. Concrete-based infrastructure, such as breakwaters, seawalls, revetments, dolos, and Xbloc units, is already used to mitigate these impacts; however, as Panama continues to expand its coastal protection systems, adopting lower-impact and sustainable concrete solutions becomes both necessary and strategic.

The review of sustainable concrete alternatives demonstrated that incorporating supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), carbon capture technologies, and recycled aggregates can significantly reduce environmental impacts while maintaining durability. National initiatives such as Vertua, Greentec, and Argos pozzolan confirm local progress toward low-carbon construction, though further research is needed to assess their performance under Panama’s tropical–marine exposure conditions.

A socioeconomic SWOT analysis revealed major opportunities in circular economy practices, carbon credit mechanisms, and growing demand for resilient infrastructure. However, it also identified weaknesses such as limited SCM availability, high initial costs, and technical skill gaps. Addressing these challenges will require coordinated actions such as regulatory updates, incentives for innovation, and local capacity building to accelerate the adoption of sustainable concrete nationwide.

Moreover, hybrid approaches that integrate sustainable concrete with nature-based solutions (NBS), such as mangrove and coral reef restoration, present the most promising path forward by combining structural protection with ecological and social benefits.

This paper underscores the need for a systemic, multi-scalar approach to coastal planning that bridges technology, sustainability, and territorial management. Future work should prioritize empirical studies in Panama, including durability testing of sustainable concretes under local exposure, life cycle assessments using Panama-specific emission factors, and pilot applications of hybrid infrastructure. Advancing along these research and policy fronts will be essential to protect the country’s most vulnerable coastal regions and to build resilient, low-carbon infrastructure.