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Review

Research Progress on Graphene Oxide (GO)/Chitosan (CS) Multifunctional Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery

by
Yanqiu Hu
1,2,†,
Lei Ma
2,†,
Qi Shi
1,*,
Jinghang Li
2,
Yuguang Lv
1,2,* and
Chaoyu Song
3
1
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi 154007, China
2
College of Pharmacy, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi 154007, China
3
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Inorganics 2025, 13(4), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics13040098
Submission received: 22 January 2025 / Revised: 6 March 2025 / Accepted: 19 March 2025 / Published: 21 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Nanomaterials for Advanced Technology)
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Abstract

:
With the unprecedented progress of biomedical nanotechnology in the past few decades, traditional drug delivery systems (DDSs) have been incorporated into intelligent DDSs with stimulus responsive characteristics. Graphene oxide (GO) and Chitosan (CS) have excellent physical, chemical, mechanical, and optical properties, and their synergistic effects have attracted widespread attention in the biomedical field. In this review, we focus on the physicochemical characteristics of GO, CS, and GO/CS composites, as well as the research progress of DDS types based on GO/CS.

1. Introduction

Traditional drug delivery systems (DDSs) face drawbacks, such as exposure stimulation, poor chemical stability, poor bioavailability, systemic side effects, unpleasant sensory and plasma drug level fluctuations, and the inability to achieve sustained release [1,2]. This is mainly attributed to uncontrollable drug release characteristics and non-specific biological distributions in the body after administration. To overcome these drawbacks, advanced intelligent DDSs have been developed to achieve effective and controllable release at specific lesion sites. Compared with traditional DDSs, intelligent controlled DDSs can maintain the concentration of drugs in target organs/tissues for a longer period of time with limited dosages and frequencies of administration. Such systems are expected to improve treatment efficacy and reduce drug-related side effects [3,4].
Due to their unique nanoscale properties and specific biological functions, various nanomaterials provide interesting benefits and new opportunities for intelligent DDSs. Due to the fact that nanoparticles contain materials designed at the atomic or molecular level, they are typically small-sized nanospheres. Therefore, compared to larger materials, they can move more freely in the human body. Nanoscale particles exhibit unique structural, chemical, mechanical, magnetic, electrical, and biological properties. Nanodrugs have widely been recognized in recent years because nanostructures can encapsulate drugs or attach therapeutic drugs, as delivery agents, and deliver them more accurately to target tissues in a controlled release manner [5]. Recent research and reviews on the use of nanomaterials as intelligent drug carriers have mainly focused on the following key issues: (i) sufficient biocompatibility and biodegradability; (ii) having good stability under physiological conditions; (iii) high drug loading and low toxicity; (iv) and industrial amplification of DDSs [2].
Nanocarriers provide excellent solutions for targeted drug delivery, especially for hydrophobic and aromatic drugs. However, the complexity of biological tissues is a barrier for nanocarriers. DDSs with particle sizes less than 200 nm have special significance because they adhere to tumor tissue due to the enhanced permeability and retention effect (EPR effect) [6]. The EPR effect of tumor tissue requires larger particle sizes, and carbon dots are too small to passively target tumor tissue through EPR [7]. One of the main obstacles encountered during the administration process is ‘sudden release’, which refers to the sudden, rapid, and uncontrolled release of the drug immediately after administration. This phenomenon can be explained by surface adsorbed drugs, which typically release faster than drugs bound to the matrix. Multiple strategies can be employed to reduce this phenomenon and improve the efficacy of drugs [8].
This review elaborates on the achievements and research status of GO/CS composite materials in the field of DDSs, and summarizes the outstanding contributions of relevant workers in this field. The unique physicochemical properties and biological functions of these two materials will be an indispensable cornerstone in future DDS research.

2. Properties of GO and CS

Graphene oxide (GO) is a two-dimensional hydrophilic graphene-based material with nanoscale dimensions. In its structure, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and carbonyl groups are distributed at the edges, while epoxy groups are distributed on the basal plane [9]. Oxidized graphite also contains many oxygen-containing functional groups in its structure, which makes it hydrophilic and allows it to be peeled off from water under ultrasound [10]. These functional groups endow GO with new and improved physical, chemical, thermal, mechanical, and electronic properties by interacting with biomolecules, and organic and inorganic materials, through covalent and non-covalent forms [10,11]. It can achieve significant loading of hydrophobic drugs through π-π stacking and non-covalent adsorption with aromatic compounds, or through chemical covalent crosslinking interactions, and has therefore been widely studied for drug delivery systems (Figure 1) [12].
However, the most challenging issue with graphene-based materials, including GO, as in vivo drug carriers is the presence of uneven or uneven edges in their structure, which may lead to the destruction of normal cells [13]. In addition, its tendency to aggregate in organisms [7] hinders its drug loading capacity and drug delivery applications [14]. In order to maximize the functionality of GO as a biomaterial, it is often modified to prevent aggregation and ensure compatibility with biological tissues.
Chitosan (CS) is a linear cationic amino polysaccharide mainly derived from chitin in marine organisms [6,15,16]. It is non-toxic, has good biocompatibility, biodegradability, high pH sensitivity, swelling, mucous adhesion, polyelectrolyte properties, low immunogenicity, structural variability, hemostasis, and broad-spectrum antibacterial activity [11,17,18]. These characteristics are very convenient for biomedical applications such as drug delivery and targeting, wound healing, and tissue engineering, as well as nanobiotechnology [19]. Importantly, due to the abundant amino and hydroxyl active groups on the CS main chain, it is easy to modify CS through various interactions such as covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and electrostatic interactions, thereby overcoming its mechanical properties and poor solubility, the CS structure is shown in Figure 2 [20].
CS is generally considered a safe material, which has led to its use in various medical applications. CS has a high renal clearance rate, or it may also undergo acid catalyzed degradation, and fragments are used for renal clearance through channels. It is also easily degraded by lysozyme, which hydrolyzes glucosamine-glucosamine, glucosamine-N-acetyl-glucosamine, and N-acetyl-glucosamine-N-acetyl-glucosamine linkages [22].
The molecular weight and degree of acetylation are the main properties of CS, affecting its solubility, viscosity, and other characteristics. The use of high-molecular-weight CS is limited by its high viscosity and low solubility. The degree of acetylation directly affects its biodegradability [4]. CS can be classified into different grades based on the degree of deacetylation and molecular weight, as deacetylation of chitin exposes amino groups from its molecular structure to produce CS. The higher the content of amino groups in the obtained CS, the higher the possibility of CS crosslinking [23]. The change in molecular weight of CS also alters some of its properties, such as crystallinity, biodegradability, viscosity, chemical reactivity, and solubility [22]. For example, as the molecular weight increases, the adhesion and permeation enhancement of CS will be enhanced [24].
The pH value is another factor that can alter the properties of CS, as the pH value of a solution can change its solubility, deacetylation, or antibacterial activity. For example, CS is insoluble at alkaline and neutral pH; this is due to interchain interactions caused by hydrogen bonding or hydrophobic interactions. These hydrophobic interactions are due to the deprotonation of amino groups in CS. However, in acidic media, the solubility of polysaccharides is improved due to the presence of positively charged primary amine groups. This positive charge allows for electrostatic interactions between CS and negatively charged molecules, such as anionic glucosamine and negatively charged liposomes. In addition to solubility, changes in pH can also alter the antibacterial and antifungal properties of CS [22]. In addition, at acidic pH, due to the presence of amino groups, the CS surface carries a net positive charge, facilitating the interaction between CS and the anionic protein mucin of the gastric mucosal layer. The adhesive properties of CS increase the residence time of drugs in the stomach and prolong the contact time between drugs and microorganisms, making it an excellent choice for controlling drug delivery applications [25].
As shown in Figure 3, the cationic properties of CS make it water-soluble and a biological adhesive that easily binds to negatively charged surfaces such as mucous membranes. Therefore, it increases adhesion to the mucosa, thereby increasing the contact time for drug molecules to penetrate the mucosa. The chelating properties of CS can be used in anionic drug delivery systems, including low molecular weight drugs and polyanionic biomolecules such as DNA or siRNA. Its carrier capacity increases with the increase in charge, making it a pH dependent drug carrier [23]. CS also has structural characteristics similar to the extracellular matrix, making it suitable for cell growth, organization, and migration during tissue formation, and easier to carry drugs through biological barriers [8].
Although CS has many advantages, it also has disadvantages, such as high hydrophilicity, low ductility, high swelling, and poor thermal stability [23]. Especially due to interchain hydrogen bonding, it lacks solubility at pH values higher than its pKa (pH~5.5–6.5). This problem can be solved by chemically modifying CS with amine and/or hydroxyl functional groups [27]. Mojtaba Abiasian et al. [27] developed a pH-responsive drug delivery nanosystem for solid tumor chemotherapy by coupling CS-grafted poly (methyl methacrylate) with GO (CS-g-PMAA/GO) and loading a model anticancer drug of doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX). Due to electrostatic repulsion, the positive charge of CS chains makes it difficult to incorporate cationic drugs [8].
The combination of GO and CS provides a stable, biocompatible, and biodegradable carrier for drug delivery. Due to the abundant functional groups that can interact with CS and GO, they can easily form composite materials through covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, or electrostatic interactions. For example, the strong hydrogen bonding and electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged GO flakes and the polysaccharide groups on positively charged CS chains compensate for the poor mechanical properties of CS [28]. In CS-based controlled release systems, drug burst release may occur due to the poor mechanical strength of CS [4]. Sai Geetha Marapureddy et al. [29] found that the chemical crosslinking of GO and CS by glutaraldehyde (GA) can improve the mechanical strength of CS hydrogels and their films. The physical crosslinking of GO and the chemical crosslinking of GA both enhanced the strength of CS hydrogel. At the same time, it greatly reduces the burst release of tetracycline hydrochloride, indicating that the CS-GO-GA membrane has great potential as a drug delivery device. The addition of GO increases the conductivity of CS, which can be used for electroporation and ion permeation drug delivery applications [4]. The addition of GO also reduced the biodegradation rate of CS. The active primary hydroxyl, secondary hydroxyl, and free amino groups on the CS main chain provide many possibilities for modifying its structure through grafting various functional groups or crosslinking [28].
Chemical crosslinking prevents the dissolution of polymer films, while nano fillers enhance the mechanical strength of polymer films, exhibiting a synergistic effect on them. Crosslinking can be divided into two categories: physical crosslinking and chemical crosslinking, which occur due to the interaction between the positive amino group of CS and the negatively charged functional group on GO through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions. Chemical crosslinking is the process of connecting CH chains through chemical reactions between amino or hydroxyl groups on CH using crosslinking agents. The commonly used crosslinking agents are aldehydes, such as glyoxal [30] and glutaraldehyde (GA) [31]. GA is a widely used crosslinking agent; despite its cytotoxicity, it has good stability. Biopolymer nanocomposites maintain a good concentration gradient for drug diffusion in the CS matrix by regulating the relaxation and osmotic pressure of polymer chains during swelling, thereby inhibiting drug delivery.
A crosslinking method can be used to modify CS and improve its adsorption capacity. CS nanoparticles were prepared by chemical crosslinking with glyoxal, ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, and glutaraldehyde. However, although these materials are acceptable crosslinking agents, they are not popular due to their physiological toxicity. TPP (Tripolyphosphate) is a widely used non-toxic polyanion agent that can interact with CS through electrostatic forces. The negatively charged TPP phosphate group interacts with the positively charged amine group in CS to form an ion crosslinked network [11].
Given that GO presents sharp flakes, the interaction between the two often results in CS coating the surface of GO, increasing surface roughness and wrinkling [12]. The performance exhibited by these composite materials improves the limitations of any monomer, namely poor mechanical properties and low biocompatibility [20]. As shown in Figure 4,Recent studies have shown that the hybrid produced by the synergistic effect between CS and GO not only has better thermal stability, mechanical and optical properties, but also exhibits excellent in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility, angiogenesis and cell growth effects, antibacterial properties, conductivity, and adsorption capacity.
GO encapsulated in biopolymer has been confirmed to have improved biocompatibility and reduced toxicity [4]. Majidi et al. [32] found that compared to pure GO, GO/CS has stronger antibacterial activity and lower cytotoxicity levels, and also contributes to increased cell proliferation. Compared to negatively charged graphene, the combination of graphene and CS carries a positive charge and can be used to release negatively charged compounds [4].

3. Types of DDSs Based on GO/CS

Functionalized nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted interest as they can prevent systemic metabolism and subsequent drug elimination, ensuring less toxic pharmacological effects [33]. Stimulation-responsive hydrogels have received special attention due to their ability to respond to external stimuli (such as changes in temperature, pH value, and ionic strength) from sol to gel. For example, injectable thermosensitive hydrogels containing drugs can be adjusted to gel at body temperature, and a drug repository can be formed in the target tissue after injection to maintain and control drug release [34].

3.1. PH Sensitive Release Type DDS

Among the different types of stimuli, pH value is one of the most commonly used triggering factors for drug release. Traditional pH responsive carriers are based on significant changes in pH values in different organs, such as the stomach (pH ≈ 2) and intestines (pH ≈ 7) [2]. The designed carrier can sensitively distinguish subtle pH changes in specific disease sites (such as inflammation, ischemia, and tumor tissue), and even differentiate subtle pH changes in different organelles (such as endosomes and lysosomes). As shown in Figure 5,The pathophysiological differences between normal and tumor tissues can be used for targeted and intelligent drug release into cancer cells. Due to the conversion of glucose to lactate in tumors, the pH value of tumor tissue is more acidic than normal tissue [35]. Compared to the normal physiological pH (7.4), the tumor extracellular microenvironment reads as (6.5–6.9) [36]. GO can be considered an effective drug delivery material because the carbon atoms in the GO layer form a large π-π bond that can connect with aromatic therapy drugs through π-π interactions, controlling drug release under environmental stimuli [14]. In addition, the -COOH on the surface of GO undergoes an amidation reaction with -NH2 in drug molecules, achieving drug loading and hydrolysis release in acidic environments [37]. The -NH2 and hydroxyl groups on CS not only allow chemical modification to achieve activity and targeted drug delivery, but also exhibit pH-responsive behavior [38].

3.2. Redox Responsive Type DDS

Reduced glutathione (GSH) is a well-known redox system in cancer cells. On the one hand, it has been reported that the concentration of GSH in blood and the normal extracellular matrix is 2–20 μM, while the GSH level in cancer cells is between 2 and 10 mM, which is 100 to 500 times higher than the normal range of 34. The significant difference in GSH levels between cancer and normal cells makes redox delivery systems an attractive strategy for designing DDSs targeting specific tumor cell sites. On the other hand, by utilizing the high accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in some disease tissues, ROS-responsive DDSs are also an effective mechanism for finely controlling the release of targeted drugs. According to reports, the mucosal ROS concentration in inflammatory tissues and colon cancer is 10 to 100 times higher than that in normal tissues. The developed redox-responsive DDS has shown exciting specificity and accuracy; however, due to the complex biological environment and heterogeneity of tumor cells, it is difficult to achieve controllability based on specific redox-based molecular mechanisms.
Xuejun Cui [40] successfully obtained capsule carriers from thiolated GO (TGO) and FA-functionalized thiolated chitosan using ultrasonic chemical methods. The sulfuryl groups (-SH) of TGO and FA-CS-SH will crosslink under ultrasound treatment to form disulfide bonds. Disulfide bonds can be broken under reduction triggering and exhibit excellent reduction reactivity for controlling drug release.

3.3. Thermal Sensitive Type DDS

In recent years, as an advanced intelligent DDS, thermosensitive hydrogels have attracted the scientific interest of many researchers and the attention of practical biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. It shows that the sol–gel transition of hydrogel under changes in temperature has many advantages compared with the system formed before implantation. For example, by simply mixing drugs with copolymer solutions, drugs can be loaded into such a system and easily injected into the desired body parts using a syringe, avoiding surgical procedures [41]. Compared to other stimuli, temperature is one of the most convenient and effective factors for controlling drug release. Usually, the temperature of pathological and physiological conditions such as inflammation and tumors is higher than that of normal tissues. Considering the temperature difference between cancer tissue and normal tissue, functionalized nanoparticles can be triggered to enhance their drug release in tumors. Another temperature response strategy is to heat the tumor site through external triggering factors (such as US, magnetic field, etc.) to improve drug release in the tumor vascular microenvironment.
Compared with traditional intravenous anticancer drugs, intratumoral drug delivery systems may realize the loading and release of insoluble anticancer drugs by forming thermosensitive hydrogels in situ. This drug delivery system can deliver anticancer drugs locally to the tumor site, thereby achieving low-dose requirements and reducing multiple dosing cycles, which can reduce or eliminate adverse drug reactions caused by local delivery and prevention of systemic drug uptake. Injectable gel banks with thermosensitive hydrogels and preformed implant systems are two types of intratumoral delivery systems for anticancer drugs. Compared with prefabricated implants, injectable gel banks based on in situ phase separation of thermosensitive hydrogels have been proven to be less invasive and less painful when injected, making them an ideal system for local anticancer drug delivery. A typical injectable gelling repository system is prepared by simply mixing drugs and polymer solutions below the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of polymer hydrogels. After injection, the sol–gel transition takes place, transforming the solution with the lowest viscosity into a drug delivery gel library. The advantage of this method is that it avoids invasive surgery of implantation sites, and the high water content of hydrogels improves the compatibility. Once the intended purpose is achieved, the biodegradability of thermosensitive polymer will be discharged from the body, and the flexibility of drug release rate through changing the formula design is verified [42].
Due to CS being a cationic polymer, one of the anionic molecules, β—glycerophosphate (GP), can be used as an ion crosslinking agent. It is a naturally occurring organic compound that has been used as an osteogenic supplement for cultivating human bone marrow stem cells. CS/β—glycerophosphate (CS/GP) is an in situ thermosensitive gelling system, which maintains fluidity at low temperature (room temperature or lower) and turns into gel at high temperature (body temperature) [43]. Poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm) is the most widely used thermal gel and thermal responsive polymer. It has a stable LCST in aqueous solution close to human body temperature, and shows hydrophilic/hydrophobic behavior in a temperature dependent manner. The thermosensitive injection hybrid hydrogel of PNIPAAm copolymer/GO/CS was synthesized by Graphene (GN) and β—GP crosslinking with different weight ratios of the PNIPAAm copolymer/GO composite and CS. It is used for proliferation and differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSC) into osteoblasts [44]. Polyethylene oxide (PEO) has been reported to prevent protein adsorption and platelet adhesion, and has important applications in biomaterials science. Due to the respective characteristics of these two polymers, crosslinked PNIPAM-g-PEO block copolymers can not only control drug delivery and release based on changes in body temperature, but also evade recognition by macrophages, prolonging the circulation cycle of drugs in human blood. The lowest temperature of PNIPAM-based copolymers is above 34 °C, which is close to human body temperature [44].

3.4. Magnetic Targeting Type DDS

Magnetite iron oxide (Fe3O4) has attracted great attention in drug delivery applications, such as in tissue engineering, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hyperthermia, biomolecule separation, and drug delivery, due to its superparamagnetism, simple structure, low toxicity, and excellent biocompatibility [45], which makes nanomaterials (NPs) controllable and easily guided by external magnetic fields [46]. Magnetically targeted drug delivery manipulates the positioning of nanocomposites in the body through external magnetic force, and guides drugs to specific tissues and cells affected by diseases such as cancer [47]. However, the hydrophobicity of Fe3O4 requires it to be loaded on a certain carrier to avoid aggregation in physiological environments.
Arsalan Ashuri et al. [48] uses magnetic nanocomposite material FA-conjugated CS-grafted Fe3O4/GO, which is then used for loading and controlled release of the anticancer drug gemcitabine (GEM). The adsorption of GEM onto the carrier conforms to quasi second-order kinetics and the Freundlich isotherm equation. This carrier exhibits a higher loading capacity. The drug can be released at a specific pH and conforms to the Peppas Sahlin kinetic model.

3.5. Folic Acid Targeted Type DDS

Folic acid (FA) is a highly selective ligand that binds to folate receptors. This ligand also has high targeting specificity for various types of cancer cells. The binding of carrier molecules with FA can improve efficiency and reduce adverse reactions of drug molecules [33]. Folic acid receptors are almost present in normal cells, mainly on activated macrophages and epithelial cells. In addition, they are overexpressed on tumor cells, allowing tumor cells to compete with normal cells for folate. In a cancerous state, epithelial cells undergo transformation and lose polarity, making it easier for folate receptors to interact with DCC rich in folate [13].
FA molecules have a carboxyl group, whereas CS has free amino groups. Seung Won Jun et al. [49] used carbodiimide to form covalent bonds between FA and CS, further obtaining FA-conjugated, CS-functionalized GO (FA-CS-GO) as a multifunctional nanoplatform with excellent biocompatibility, tumor targeting ability, high absorbance in the near-infrared region, and photostability. This type of DDS has higher targeted drug release in the cancer microenvironment when used for delivering anti-tumor drugs. Cell toxicity testing showed selective apoptosis of cancer cells (A549) while maintaining cell compatibility with normal cells (HEK293) [50].

3.6. Photosensitive Type DDS

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has received widespread attention due to its use as a minimally invasive, efficient treatment method, low cost, controllability, precise delivery of energy to targeted cancer cells or tissues, and deep penetration into target tissues without damaging normal tissues [49]. Basically, it requires a special agent that can absorb a certain amount of light radiation, effectively convert it into heat, and accumulate in the tumor area for a longer period of time [10]. In this processing method, a NIR (near-infrared radiation) laser with a wavelength range of 700–1100 nm is usually preferred as the beam source. NIR uses a light absorbing photothermal agent that can convert light energy into thermal energy [51]. GO has obvious NIR absorption characteristics, such as GO [52], rGO [53,54], and graphene quantum dots (GQD) [55], and has also become a promising photothermal agent in photothermal therapy, especially due to its high absorption cross-section in the near-infrared (NIR) region [56], which has received high attention in PTT treatment methods. It is important to use non-invasive and remote methods to control drug release, allowing for on-site and on-demand drug elution. According to reports, near-infrared spectroscopy, magnetic fields, and ultrasound are effective external stimuli for remotely controlling drug release. However, CS microspheres did not respond to these external stimuli; therefore, it is necessary to add responsive nano components to CS microspheres [57].
However, GO or magnetic GO nanosheets are prone to aggregation under physiological conditions, which severely limits their application in drug delivery. In fact, compared to GO nanosheets, magnetic GO nanosheets are more prone to aggregation because magnetic modification increases the weight of the nanosheets. Therefore, further functionalization is needed to enhance the hydrophilicity of the nanosheets.
In view of the poor water solubility of CS in neutral mediums, some researchers introduced carboxymethyl into CS and crosslinked it with alginate oxide (OxAlg) to form a acylhydrazone (–N=C–) covalent bond to obtain hydrogel, which is used to coat GO (GO/Nar) and MTX containing the natural drug naringin (Nar) [58]. Due to the easy hydrolysis of the –N=C– bond in acidic media, the Nar and MTX delivered from the developed DDS are sensitive to pH values. On the other hand, with the help of GO, thermal therapy generated under NIR irradiation can cause ablation of tumor cells. Therefore, the therapeutic effect of the developed dual (pH and NIR)-reactive DDS on osteosarcoma is significantly enhanced through the chemotherapy photothermal synergistic therapy mode, which can be confirmed by cytotoxicity assays.

4. Summary

The composite material of GO and chitosan CS exhibits significant advantages in drug delivery systems, mainly reflected in the following aspects: Firstly, GO provides a large specific surface area and drug loading capacity, while CS has good biocompatibility and biodegradability. This composite material can not only enhance the stability of drugs, but also achieve controlled release and targeted delivery of drugs; secondly, the applications of GO and CS in the biomedical field are not limited to drug delivery. They are also widely used in various fields such as PTT, antibacterial materials, bioimaging, biosensors, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine; in addition, graphene and its derivatives have antibacterial properties, which can be used to develop antibacterial medical products such as medical devices, dressings, and wound dressings, effectively preventing infections and promoting wound healing. Finally, the application prospects of GO and CS in the field of drug delivery are also driven by the development of materials science and nanotechnology.

Author Contributions

Y.H.: Writing—original draft, Methodology, Data curation. L.M.: Writing—review and editing, Data curation. Q.S.: Writing—review and editing, Data curation. J.L.: Writing—review and editing. Y.L.: Writing—review and editing, Formal analysis. C.S.: Writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work has been supported by the Department of Scientific Research project in the Basic Scientific Research Funds of Heilongjiang Provincial Colleges and Universities (No. 2023-KYYWF-0594).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

This work was financially supported by the Department of Scientific Research project in Heilong jiang province (No. LH2022B022), the Scientific Research Topics of Heilongjiang Provincial Health and Wellness Commission (No. 20231313020367), the 2023 Jiamusi University National Foundation Incubation Program (JMSUGPZR2023–006), and the “Research and development team of northern unique medicinal resources”, Jiamusi University, “East Pole” academic team (team no. DJXSTD202403).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Inorganics 13 00098 g001
Figure 1. The physicochemical properties of GO and its application in the medical field.
Figure 1. The physicochemical properties of GO and its application in the medical field.
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Figure 2. The structural properties of CS and their impact on physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles [21].
Figure 2. The structural properties of CS and their impact on physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles [21].
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Figure 3. Schematic illustration of target ligand-drug incorporated CS nanoparticles and its advantage in treating cancer [26].
Figure 3. Schematic illustration of target ligand-drug incorporated CS nanoparticles and its advantage in treating cancer [26].
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Figure 4. The application of GO/CS in the medical field [20].
Figure 4. The application of GO/CS in the medical field [20].
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Figure 5. Molecular dynamics simulations depicting the interaction behavior of GO and doxorubicin (DOX) at different pH conditions [39].
Figure 5. Molecular dynamics simulations depicting the interaction behavior of GO and doxorubicin (DOX) at different pH conditions [39].
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Hu, Y.; Ma, L.; Shi, Q.; Li, J.; Lv, Y.; Song, C. Research Progress on Graphene Oxide (GO)/Chitosan (CS) Multifunctional Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery. Inorganics 2025, 13, 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics13040098

AMA Style

Hu Y, Ma L, Shi Q, Li J, Lv Y, Song C. Research Progress on Graphene Oxide (GO)/Chitosan (CS) Multifunctional Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery. Inorganics. 2025; 13(4):98. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics13040098

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hu, Yanqiu, Lei Ma, Qi Shi, Jinghang Li, Yuguang Lv, and Chaoyu Song. 2025. "Research Progress on Graphene Oxide (GO)/Chitosan (CS) Multifunctional Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery" Inorganics 13, no. 4: 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics13040098

APA Style

Hu, Y., Ma, L., Shi, Q., Li, J., Lv, Y., & Song, C. (2025). Research Progress on Graphene Oxide (GO)/Chitosan (CS) Multifunctional Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery. Inorganics, 13(4), 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics13040098

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