Languages

12 pages, 259 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Cooperative Principle in Cross-Cultural Contexts: A Corpus-Based Pragmatic Study of International Students Learning Romanian

by Gabriel Dan Barbulet and Andra Iulia Ursa

Languages 2026, 11(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020029 (registering DOI) - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

This study examines how international students learning Romanian interpret and apply the Cooperative Principle in everyday and academic interaction. The research is grounded in the observation that pragmatic competence often develops unevenly in second-language learning, particularly in multilingual environments where learners rely on [...] Read more.

This study examines how international students learning Romanian interpret and apply the Cooperative Principle in everyday and academic interaction. The research is grounded in the observation that pragmatic competence often develops unevenly in second-language learning, particularly in multilingual environments where learners rely on norms carried over from their first language. To investigate these dynamics, a small spoken and written corpus was compiled from classroom activities, recorded peer interactions, and informal conversations with students enrolled in Romanian language courses. The data were annotated for instances of maxim observance, weakening, and flouting, as well as for implicatures that required contextual inference. The analysis shows recurring patterns of pragmatic transfer, especially in the interpretation of relevance and quantity, and highlights areas where learners systematically misinterpret or underproduce implicatures. Several examples also reveal successful adaptation to Romanian communicative expectations, suggesting that exposure to diverse interactional settings supports the refinement of pragmatic cues. The findings contribute to a clearer understanding of how the Cooperative Principle operates in cross-cultural learning contexts and point to practical implications for teaching Romanian as a foreign language. Full article

20 pages, 2222 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Mechanism of PF-Deletion Under the Probe–Goal System

by Nobu Goto

Languages 2026, 11(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020028 - 31 Jan 2026

Viewed by 225

Abstract

This paper develops a mechanism of PF-deletion within a probe–goal system that incorporates C-to-T feature inheritance. I propose that the phase head C enters the derivation not only with an edge feature (EF) and agree (φ-)features but also with a delete-feature, which licenses [...] Read more.

This paper develops a mechanism of PF-deletion within a probe–goal system that incorporates C-to-T feature inheritance. I propose that the phase head C enters the derivation not only with an edge feature (EF) and agree (φ-)features but also with a delete-feature, which licenses the deletion of an element at PF (PF-deletion). When C-to-T feature inheritance applies, the target of PF-deletion is determined through φ-probing from T; when it does not, it is determined through EF-probing from C. By linking PF-deletion to phase-internal probing, this approach dispenses with pro, traditionally assumed to exist in the lexicon of null subject languages such as Italian, as a theoretical primitive. Crucially, it offers a unified account of the distribution of null arguments in both Italian (a pro-drop language) and German (a topic-drop language), two language types that have traditionally resisted unified analysis under the principles-and-parameters approach. In addition to the synchronic study of the distribution of null arguments, I further argue that diachronic evidence from old languages such as Old French and Old English lends additional support to the proposal, and conclude that whether C-to-T inheritance applies or not is a crucial factor in explaining crosslinguistic variation in null argument phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)

10 pages, 2258 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Absence of Relative Clause Islands in Adara

by Jason Kandybowicz

Languages 2026, 11(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020027 - 31 Jan 2026

Viewed by 180

Abstract

I argue that definite relative clauses, despite their stable strong island status cross-linguistically, lack island status in Adara. The structure is neither selective nor weak, but rather completely permeable, allowing the free extraction of both arguments and adjuncts. In support of the claim [...] Read more.

I argue that definite relative clauses, despite their stable strong island status cross-linguistically, lack island status in Adara. The structure is neither selective nor weak, but rather completely permeable, allowing the free extraction of both arguments and adjuncts. In support of the claim that A-bar movement may escape relative clause domains in Adara, I adduce evidence from crossover effects, reconstruction effects, and quantifier float. In addition, I show that relative clause-internal material may probe upwards and outwards, triggering long-distance agreement of relativized verbs with clause-external subjects in a way that is not possible with true island structures in the language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Escaping African ‘Islands’)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 389 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reflexivity and Reciprocity in Two Arabic Varieties: Evidence for REF-REC Category

by Abdulazeez Jaradat, Dina Mahmoud Hammouri, Muneir Gwasmeh and Ahmad S. Haider

Languages 2026, 11(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020026 - 30 Jan 2026

Viewed by 110

Abstract

Languages vary in expressing reflexivity and reciprocity. In some languages, reflexive and reciprocal constructions are formally identical, while in some other languages, they are distinct. The third group comprises languages that have non-reflexive and reflexive–reciprocal (REF-REC) constructions. This paper investigates marking reflexivity and [...] Read more.

Languages vary in expressing reflexivity and reciprocity. In some languages, reflexive and reciprocal constructions are formally identical, while in some other languages, they are distinct. The third group comprises languages that have non-reflexive and reflexive–reciprocal (REF-REC) constructions. This paper investigates marking reflexivity and reciprocity in Standard Arabic and Jordanian Arabic. It demonstrates that these two varieties possess a non-reflexive reciprocal category and a REF-REC category, placing them within the third group. However, these varieties are peculiar in terms of having three possible interpretations of a sentence embedding this category: only reflexive, only reciprocal, and simultaneously both. This peculiar case has been interpreted as a case of sentential vagueness: each of the two markers in the target varieties has a univocal meaning, and the range of possible sentential interpretations arises from contextual clues. From a cross-linguistic perspective, this paper also identifies a novel source of reflexive marking: the nominal ħaal in Jordanian Arabic. This nominal, which primitively means ‘(personal) state’, is the conceptual strategy for reflexivity in this variety. Full article

22 pages, 801 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incremental Processing of Laughter in Interaction

by Vladislav Maraev, Arash Eshghi, Chiara Mazzocconi and Christine Howes

Languages 2026, 11(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020025 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 265

Abstract

In dialogue, laughter is a frequent non-verbal signal that can precede, follow, or overlap its antecedent—the laughable. Furthermore, the time alignment between the laughter and the laughable is dependent on who produces the laughable, whether laughter overlaps or not with speech and the [...] Read more.

In dialogue, laughter is a frequent non-verbal signal that can precede, follow, or overlap its antecedent—the laughable. Furthermore, the time alignment between the laughter and the laughable is dependent on who produces the laughable, whether laughter overlaps or not with speech and the communicative act performed. Laughter can interrupt either one’s own or one’s conversational partners’ utterances and, like other well-studied features of dialogue such as repair and split utterances, this interruption does not necessarily occur at phrase boundaries. Similarly, much like repair and other feedback like backchannels, laughters can be categorised as forward-looking or backward-looking. Given these parallels, we propose an analysis of how laughter can be processed and integrated using a Dynamic Syntax (DS) model, which already has well-motivated accounts of repair, split utterances, and feedback. We present a corpus study of laughter in dialogue, as well as a model using Dynamic Syntax and Theory of Types with Records (DS-TTR). Analogously to pronouns and ellipsis, our approach uses underspecification to account for laughter types that are different in processing terms as anaphoric or cataphoric, and demonstrates how laughter is processed incrementally as an utterance unfolds. Our analysis covers ≈87% of the annotated corpus data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Dynamic Syntax)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 799 KB

Open AccessReview

Animation in Speech, Language, and Communication Assessment of Children: A Scoping Review

by Triantafyllia I. Vlachou, Maria Kambanaros, Arhonto Terzi and Voula C. Georgopoulos

Languages 2026, 11(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020024 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 258

Abstract

Animation has been used to assess speech, language, and communication skills in children. We aimed to map and synthesize relevant research addressing how and when animation is used for assessment purposes in speech–language pathology practice. Four databases were searched, yielding 18 studies that [...] Read more.

Animation has been used to assess speech, language, and communication skills in children. We aimed to map and synthesize relevant research addressing how and when animation is used for assessment purposes in speech–language pathology practice. Four databases were searched, yielding 18 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Data was extracted on study design, objectives, participant characteristics, results, assessment areas, purposes of animation use, underlying theoretical and research bases, and technical features. Theoretical grounding for children’s perception of animation was not evident in the studies, while several studies showed research foundations for its use in speech–language pathology assessment. Various animations were used for diverse purposes and research goals, primarily involving typically developing children and fewer clinical samples. All studies focused on language assessment. The diversity in animation research precludes conclusions regarding best practices in use of animation in speech–language pathology assessment. An initial evidence base was established, documenting research approaches, the effects of animation on language and cognition, observed behaviors, the performance of clinical samples, and psychometric properties of the assessment tools. Limitations, knowledge gaps, and future research are discussed. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid Compound Formation in Classical and Modern Papiamentu

by Gabriel Antunes de Araujo and Guilherme Mendes

Languages 2026, 11(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020023 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 175

Abstract

Papiamentu is a creole language lexified by Portuguese and Spanish. In addition to its Iberian foundational lexicon, it has been influenced by Dutch and English. This study analyzes hybrid compound formation in Classical Papiamentu (CP) and Modern Papiamentu (MP), with a focus on [...] Read more.

Papiamentu is a creole language lexified by Portuguese and Spanish. In addition to its Iberian foundational lexicon, it has been influenced by Dutch and English. This study analyzes hybrid compound formation in Classical Papiamentu (CP) and Modern Papiamentu (MP), with a focus on the distribution of etymological sources and morphosyntactic structure. A corpus of 100 hybrid compounds is analyzed according to the etymology of internal components, the distribution of components within the structure of the compound, and their internal grammatical structure. While CP compounds are predominantly headed by Iberian etyma, MP compounds show increased Dutch and English lexical influence, while retaining syntactic properties drawn from Iberian lexifiers, such as a prevalence of prepositional compounds linked by the grammaticalized particle di. This study sheds light on the complex processes of language contact, morphosyntactic formation, and lexical innovation by examining how lexical loanwords from distinct donor languages interact in compound formation across two historical stages. It contributes to the broader understanding of morphosyntactic hybridity and the role of compounding in creole lexical development. Full article

20 pages, 1132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Metapragmatic Awareness in Melbourne Greek: Addressee-Oriented Indicators and the T/V Distinction

by Theodossia-Soula Pavlidou

Languages 2026, 11(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020022 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 244

Abstract

The role of metapragmatics in maintaining interactional coherence and achieving intersubjectivity has been variously underscored in the last three decades. In particular, raising metapragmatic awareness has become increasingly salient in research on intercultural communication and foreign/second language teaching. However, the topic has not [...] Read more.

The role of metapragmatics in maintaining interactional coherence and achieving intersubjectivity has been variously underscored in the last three decades. In particular, raising metapragmatic awareness has become increasingly salient in research on intercultural communication and foreign/second language teaching. However, the topic has not been hitherto discussed in connection with heritage languages, and this is a gap that the present paper aims to fill. Based on interviews with Greek Melburnians who belong (in triads or dyads) to the same family but to different generations, a typology of metapragmatic awareness indicators encountered in the data is presented. Quantitative examination of one type of indicators—those oriented towards the addressee—indicates a decrease in their use across three generations. Similarly, examination of the variants of second-person pronouns and/or verb endings (the T/V distinction) brought to the fore alternations in the T and V forms, indicative of linguistic insecurity, as well as an increasing preference for the informal variants across three generations. The qualitative analysis of extracts from the interviews shed further light on the insecurity regarding the T/V distinction. Overall, the results point to changes in the communicative style of Greek Melburnians, namely away from positive politeness features (typical of the Greek society) towards English interactional norms, and the fostering of a hybrid communicative style—in alignment with their hybrid identities. It is suggested that politeness issues be integrated into the teaching of Greek as a heritage language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)

16 pages, 326 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Linguistic Influence in Spanish in Contact with French in Montreal

by Enrique Pato

Languages 2026, 11(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020021 - 28 Jan 2026

Viewed by 155

Abstract

This paper, positioned within the study of immigrant language varieties in Canada, examines mismo si (‘even if’), an understudied grammatical feature of Spanish in contact with French in Montreal. The phenomenon is analyzed cross-linguistically and within the theoretical framework of Distributed Morphology, approaching [...] Read more.

This paper, positioned within the study of immigrant language varieties in Canada, examines mismo si (‘even if’), an understudied grammatical feature of Spanish in contact with French in Montreal. The phenomenon is analyzed cross-linguistically and within the theoretical framework of Distributed Morphology, approaching it from two complementary perspectives: (1) a sociolinguistic analysis of Spanish-French bilinguals in Montreal, and (2) a formal investigation of its structural properties. Mismo si, equivalent to Standard Spanish aunque and incluso si (‘even though’), is a lexical transfer from the French conjunction même si and conveys a concessive meaning. The evidence shows that this structure constitutes a distinctive linguistic adaptation to the bilingual sociolinguistic environment of Montreal. The article is organized in two sections: the first presents a qualitative and quantitative analysis of mismo si occurrences in the COLEM corpus (Corpus Oral de la Lengua Española en Montreal), while the second offers a formal examination of this contact-induced structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shifting Borders: Spanish Morphosyntax in Contact Zones)

19 pages, 3678 KB

Open AccessReview

Speech Variation in the Teaching of Italian as a Second/Foreign Language: A Critical Review

by Luciano Romito and Elvira Graziano

Languages 2026, 11(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11020020 - 27 Jan 2026

Viewed by 245

Abstract

This study analyses the variety of the language used in textbooks for teaching Italian as a second/foreign language. These books use a language much closer to written than to spoken Italian and do not consider its varieties, providing examples and exercises with a [...] Read more.

This study analyses the variety of the language used in textbooks for teaching Italian as a second/foreign language. These books use a language much closer to written than to spoken Italian and do not consider its varieties, providing examples and exercises with a “neutral” standard that speakers rarely use in everyday speech. The aim of this study is to provide a critical review of pronunciation sections in current L2 Italian textbooks, in the light of a renewed and growing interest in the study of the Italian language, not only by students with a migrant background in Italy, but also by second and third-generation emigrants who want to learn Italian to recover their roots. Thirty-two Italian textbooks were examined, considering some geolinguistic variables. The general tendency seems to be the introduction of some neo-standard Italian features. As far as the phonetic–phonological level is concerned, this is probably still insufficient because of the complexity of the Italian linguistic repertoire. Our analysis further suggests the inadequacy of notions such as (neo-)standard Italian for teaching purposes in the linguistic space of global Italian. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Speech Variation in Contemporary Italian)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Languages, Volume 11, Issue 2 (February 2026) – 10 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI