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  • Systematic Review
  • Open Access

15 January 2025

Potential of Natural-Based Sun Protection Factor (SPF): A Systematic Review of Curcumin as Sunscreen

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Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Padjadjaran University, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia
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Cosmetic Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, Padjadjaran University, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Cosmetics2025, 12(1), 10;https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics12010010
This article belongs to the Special Issue Current and Future Trends in Cosmetics Research: The 10th Anniversary of Cosmetics
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Abstract

Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun significantly damages the skin, leading to premature aging, hyperpigmentation, and oxidative stress that disrupts skin homeostasis. UV radiation increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), accelerating skin deterioration. Although sunscreens remain the primary method for UV protection, chemical-based formulations are often associated with side effects, such as allergic reactions and acne. To address these concerns, the inclusion of natural ingredients in sunscreen formulations has gained attention. Curcumin, an active compound found in turmeric (Curcuma longa) and Java turmeric (Curcuma xanthorrhiza), is well-known for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This review explores the potential of curcumin as a natural ingredient for enhancing the Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of sunscreen products. A systematic literature review was conducted, analyzing 200 articles sourced from Google Scholar and PubMed using keywords such as “Curcumin”, “Curcuma”, “Antioxidant”, “Anti-Inflammatory”, and “Sun Protection Factor”. Studies unrelated to UV protection were excluded. The findings, presented in tabular form, indicate that curcumin and Curcuma exhibit significant potential to enhance SPF values due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and UV-absorbing properties. Additionally, curcumin may aid in skin repair following UV-induced damage. However, the specific concentration of curcumin in various Curcuma species remains unknown, and further research is necessary to determine its optimal use. Consideration of additional excipients in sunscreen formulations is also required to maximize efficacy. In conclusion, curcumin demonstrates considerable promise as a sustainable and effective natural ingredient for protecting the skin from UV radiation, offering a safer alternative to conventional chemical-based sunscreens.

1. Introduction

The exposure of human skin to solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) significantly increases the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), disrupting the natural redox balance and promoting a pro-oxidative state, which ultimately leads to oxidative stress [,,]. The detrimental effects of oxidative stress manifest through various mechanisms, including alterations in proteins and lipids, inflammation, immune suppression, DNA damage, and the activation of signaling pathways that regulate gene transcription, cell cycle control, proliferation, and apoptosis []. Consequently, maintaining ROS levels within a physiological range is critical for preserving normal skin homeostasis [,,,,,,].
To mitigate the detrimental effects of oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be regulated by various compounds, including antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and glutathione, as well as enzymatic antioxidants like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, which play crucial roles in reducing ROS levels and maintaining cellular redox homeostasis [,,]. In addition to these compounds, natural substances such as curcumin, kaempferol, ellagic acid, capsaicin, and anthocyanin have been shown to contribute significantly to ROS regulation [,,,,,,]. Among these, curcumin, a bioactive compound derived from turmeric (Curcuma longa) and Java turmeric (Curcuma xanthorrhiza), stands out for its potent antioxidant properties [,,]. Curcumin not only neutralizes free radicals but also modulates ROS-metabolizing enzymes, thereby offering protection against oxidative stress-induced skin damage [,].
Recent studies have highlighted the potential of curcumin in the cosmetic industry, particularly for maintaining skin homeostasis and regulating ROS levels. Curcumin has been shown to enhance cellular antioxidant defense mechanisms through the activation of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway, which plays a pivotal role in mitigating oxidative stress [,,,]. As a natural active ingredient, curcumin not only aids in repairing UV-damaged skin but also acts as an anti-aging agent due to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [,,,]. Its potential as a natural UV protector has garnered significant attention, as it can absorb UV radiation and prevent skin damage, including erythema, hyperpigmentation, and wrinkles [,,,,,,]. Furthermore, curcumin has been found to inhibit UVB-induced tumor necrosis factor (TNF) mRNA expression and reduce matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) expression in keratinocytes and fibroblasts, contributing to its protective effects against photoaging [,].
Given this potential, curcumin is increasingly being explored as an alternative ingredient in UV protection products. Its efficacy as a UV protectant lies in its ability to absorb UV rays and mitigate oxidative stress induced by sun exposure [,,,]. While studies have shown that curcumin can enhance Sun Protection Factor (SPF) values, further research is required to fully evaluate its potential as a standalone agent in effective sunscreen formulations [,,].
Sunscreen has long been recognized as one of the primary methods for protecting the skin from ultraviolet (UV) radiation [,]. These products reduce the harmful effects of UV rays by absorbing, reflecting, or scattering radiation and are specifically formulated for topical application [,]. The effectiveness of sunscreen is often enhanced by incorporating antioxidants, which boost photoprotective properties [,]. The SPF value is a key metric for determining a sunscreen’s efficacy in preventing sunburn; higher SPF values indicate greater protection [,]. However, traditional sunscreens frequently rely on chemical filters, which are a leading cause of photoallergic reactions and can trigger both acute and chronic allergic symptoms [,,]. Additionally, inorganic filters may interfere with percutaneous absorption, disrupt endocrine function, clog pores, and contribute to acne. In response to these concerns, the pharmaceutical industry is increasingly focusing on the development of sunscreens made from safer and more cost-effective natural ingredients, such as curcumin [,].
Curcumin, a bioactive compound derived from plants of the Curcuma genus in the Zingiberaceae family, has been extensively utilized as a natural active ingredient in herbal cosmetics, including as a photoprotective agent [,,]. Recent studies demonstrate that curcumin protects skin cells from UV radiation and prevents sunburn through its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [,,]. Moreover, curcumin enhances cellular antioxidant defenses by activating the Nrf2 pathway, which plays a pivotal role in mitigating oxidative stress [,]. As a result, antioxidants such as curcumin are highly valuable in preventing various UV-induced skin conditions, including premature aging [,,,]. In sunscreen formulations, UV-absorbing ingredients are designed to absorb UV rays within the 290–400 nm wavelength range, effectively preventing skin damage such as erythema, hyperpigmentation, and premature aging [,].
Several studies on plants of the Curcuma genus have demonstrated their potential to enhance the SPF values of sunscreen formulations. Despite these promising findings, a comprehensive evaluation of curcumin as a standalone sunscreen agent remains unexplored. This review aims to summarize and analyze the potential of curcumin as a natural and effective ingredient for sunscreen products.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Focal Question

This systematic review is conducted to answer the following question: “Can curcumin be used as sun protector agent in sunscreen formulation?”.

2.2. Literature Search

This systematic review was conducted using both national and international databases, specifically Google Scholar and PubMed. The search utilized keywords such as “curcumin”, “Curcuma”, “antioxidant”, “anti-inflammation”, and “sun protection factor”.

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria for this systematic review encompassed in vitro and in vivo studies that reported the antioxidant or anti-inflammatory activities of curcumin and Curcuma and included their Sun Protection Factor (SPF) values. It is acknowledged that SPF values in formulations can be influenced by excipients. The exclusion criteria consisted of studies focusing on the activities of curcumin and Curcuma in relation to specific diseases.

2.4. Study Selection

This systematic review adhered to the guidelines of PRISMA (The Preferred Reporting Items for a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis), with the corresponding flow diagram presented in Figure 1. The primary outcome considered in this review was the SPF value of curcumin.
Figure 1. Flow diagram according to PRISMA guidelines.

2.5. Data Analysis

A qualitative assessment of the outcomes from the included studies is provided in this systematic review. No meta-analysis was performed. The results are presented descriptively and supplemented with tables that summarize the evidence.

3. Results

Based on the defined search terms, a total of 10,818 studies were identified. Following a full-text screening aligned with the inclusion criteria, 251 studies were selected. Among these, 50 were excluded as their SPF values were associated with specific diseases. Consequently, 200 studies were included in this review. The study selection process adhered to the PRISMA guidelines and is illustrated in Figure 1.

3.1. Physicochemical Characteristics of Curcumin

Curcumin is recognized as an effective natural sunscreen, largely attributable to its active components, particularly flavonoids. The chemical structure of curcumin is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Chemical structure of curcumin.
Curcumin is a yellow–orange pigment derived from plants of the Curcuma genus, including Curcuma longa, Curcuma xanthorrhiza, Curcuma zedoaria, Curcuma mangga, and other species [,,,,]. Curcumin extracted from different species exhibits unique physicochemical characteristics, as summarized in Table 1. These distinct properties are essential for the formulation and therapeutic applications of curcumin in sunscreen products [,].
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of curcumin.

3.2. Antioxidant Activity of Curcumin

Antioxidant activity can be evaluated using various methods, including the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC), reducing power assay (RPA), 2-deoxyribose degradation assay (2-DR), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), 2,2-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), and cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) [,,,,,,,,,]. The DPPH and 2-DR methods allow for the determination of free radical inhibition percentages and the inhibition concentration (IC50) value, where a lower IC50 indicates higher antioxidant activity []. In several studies, antioxidant activity measured using the ORAC, ABTS, and CUPRAC methods is expressed as Trolox equivalents in micromoles per gram of extract (μmol TE/g). In contrast, the antioxidant activity in the RPA method is reported as absorbance [,,,,,,,,,]. Higher ORAC, ABTS, and CUPRAC values indicate greater antioxidant activity, while higher absorbance values in the RPA method reflect stronger reducing power and antioxidant activity []. Antioxidant activity in the FRAP assay is expressed as micromoles of ferrous equivalent (μM Fe[II] per 100 g), with higher FRAP values indicating stronger antioxidant potential []. Several studies have highlighted the antioxidant activity of curcumin, as summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Antioxidant activity of curcumin.
Research has shown that the flavonoids present in curcumin exhibit strong antioxidant properties, effectively preventing the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation induced by UV exposure [,]. These processes are closely associated with conditions such as photoaging and skin cancer [].

3.3. Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Curcumin

The anti-inflammatory activities of curcumin have been extensively investigated in numerous studies, both in vivo and in vitro, as summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin.
Recent research indicates that curcumin, a flavonoid compound, exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and scavenging free radicals, thereby protecting tissues and cells from damage [,].

3.4. Potential of Curcumin (Curcuma Spesies) as SPF Agent

Several studies have demonstrated that curcumin improves SPF values, as outlined in Table 4. Its ability to enhance the skin’s defense against ultraviolet (UV) radiation is attributed to its antioxidant and UV-absorbing properties [,,]. By neutralizing free radicals and reducing oxidative stress caused by UV exposure, curcumin enhances the photoprotective capacity of sunscreen formulations [,]. Due to these properties, curcumin holds potential as a valuable addition to sun care products, not only as an SPF-boosting agent but also for its broader skin-protective benefits, including preventing photoaging and reducing inflammation [,,].
Table 4. Potential of curcumin (Curcuma species) as SPF agent.
The SPF values of different Curcuma species vary due to the differing curcumin con-centrations among them. Even within the same species, variations in SPF values can occur due to differences in the material’s origin and the processing methods employed.

3.5. Mechanism of Curcumin as a Sun Protector Agent

Curcumin has several mechanisms of action that make it an ideal ingredient for cosmetic formulations, particularly as an SPF booster []. These mechanisms include its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and sun-protective properties, as summarized in Table 5.
Table 5. Mechanism of curcumin as a sun protector agent.
The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of curcumin are strongly correlated with its potential as a sun-protective agent [,]. Evidence from research highlights curcumin’s ability to reduce inflammatory markers and alleviate oxidative damage, both of which are critical factors in skin damage induced by UV radiation [,,,,,,]. Through its capacity to mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress, curcumin plays a pivotal role in shielding the skin from UV-related damage, thus serving as a multifunctional component in sun care formulations [,].

4. Discussion

Curcumin, the primary bioactive compound derived from Curcuma longa, has attracted considerable interest due to its broad spectrum of bioactive properties, notably its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and UV-protective effects [,,]. The flavonoid components of curcumin demonstrate robust antioxidant capabilities, efficiently inhibiting the generation of oxygen free radicals and lipid peroxidation triggered by UV radiation [,,]. These protective effects are crucial in mitigating conditions such as photoaging and skin cancer [,,,,]. Additionally, curcumin alleviates UV-induced inflammatory responses by suppressing the activation of NF-κB and other pro-inflammatory transcription factors, ultimately reducing inflammation and safeguarding the skin against UV-induced damage [].
As a UV protector, curcumin holds promise for inclusion in natural sunscreen formulations, offering a range of opportunities, advantages, and challenges [,,]. Natural sunscreens present an opportunity to leverage plant-based compounds such as flavonoids, polyphenols, and other secondary metabolites, known for their strong antioxidant and UV-absorbing properties [,]. These compounds can shield the skin from oxidative damage caused by UV radiation while reducing inflammation and mitigating aging effects [,,,]. The integration of natural ingredients with nanotechnology, such as nanoparticles and liposomes, further expands the potential of natural sunscreens. These advanced delivery systems enhance the stability, bioavailability, and efficacy of the active compounds, improving protection against UV rays []. Research indicates that natural ingredients can significantly enhance the photoprotective capabilities of sunscreens, providing antioxidant benefits and addressing skin inflammation, barrier damage, and UV-induced aging [,,]. However, natural sunscreens face notable challenges, including their relatively lower SPF and photostability compared with chemical-based sunscreens [,,]. Stabilization techniques, such as incorporating natural compounds into nanoparticles, are often required to improve their performance and resilience under sun exposure []. For instance, a study by Sari and Susiloningrum (2022) demonstrated that combining Curcuma mangga with TiO2 in sunscreen formulations resulted in higher SPF values compared with TiO2-only formulations []. This suggests that natural ingredients can act as SPF boosters, potentially reducing the reliance on synthetic UV filters. The composition of natural sunscreens, which typically involves fewer synthetic UV filters, offers additional benefits, including safety, non-toxicity, and a lower risk of irritation or side effects compared with formulations with chemical or synthetic ingredients [,]. This makes natural sunscreens an appealing choice for consumers seeking effective and safer alternatives for sun protection [,].
The physicochemical properties of curcumin, summarized in Table 1, play a significant role in its applicability within cosmetic formulations. This compound is recognized for its yellowish-orange hue, mild earthy aroma, and bitter taste, yet these characteristics pose challenges in product development [,]. Curcumin’s limited solubility in water significantly restricts its bioavailability, though it is readily soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol, acetone, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) [,]. This poor solubility necessitates advanced formulation strategies to enhance both its stability and integration into cosmetic products. Furthermore, curcumin exhibits instability under specific conditions, degrading when exposed to sunlight and becoming unstable at pH levels exceeding 6.5 []. These issues must be meticulously managed during formulation to preserve its efficacy [,]. On the other hand, curcumin demonstrates favorable heat resistance, tolerating temperatures up to 140 °C for short durations, an attribute beneficial for certain manufacturing processes []. Additionally, the ash and water content of curcumin extracts, typically ranging between 4 and 6% and 8 and 9%, respectively, influence both its stability and shelf life [,]. Addressing these factors is crucial for optimizing its use in sustainable and effective cosmetic formulations.
Curcumin’s antioxidant activity, as detailed in Table 2, has been evaluated using a range of assays, including DPPH radical scavenging, ORAC, FRAP, ABTS, and others. These studies highlight variations in antioxidant potential among different Curcuma species, primarily influenced by differences in curcumin content [,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,]. Furthermore, environmental factors such as geographic region, solvent selection, and extraction methodologies significantly impact the antioxidant properties of curcumin, as summarized in Table 2 [,,,]. The antioxidant activity of curcumin across various Curcuma species demonstrates notable variability, with values ranging from 291.3 ± 3.1 μg/mL to 1.08 μg/mL for Curcuma longa, 19.0 ± 1.7 μg/mL to 1973.38 ± 219.93 μg/mL for Curcuma xanthorrhiza, 20.2 ± 2.0 μg/mL to 956.16 ± 20.27 μg/mL for Curcuma zedoaria, 37.75 μg/mL to 500 μg/mL for Curcuma heyneana, 6.0313 μg/mL to 1724 μg/mL for Curcuma aeruginosa, and 37.338 ± 1.851 μg/mL to 268.802 ± 43.573 μg/mL for Curcuma mangga [,,,,,,,]. Notably, curcumin in its extract form demonstrates superior antioxidant activity compared with formulated products, likely due to the reduced bioavailability of the active compound in complex formulations [,]. The enhanced antioxidant activity of curcumin is closely linked to its photoprotective properties, including reductions in sunburn cell formation, erythema, and UV-induced immunosuppression [,,]. Consequently, optimizing the concentration of curcumin in formulations is essential to ensure adequate antioxidant and photoprotective effects.
Curcumin’s anti-inflammatory properties have been widely studied through both in vivo and in vitro approaches, as summarized in Table 3. In vivo experiments, such as those utilizing TPA-induced and xylene-induced ear edema models in mice, have demonstrated curcumin’s efficacy in reducing inflammation by assessing changes in edema volume in the ears of the test subjects [,]. Additionally, the application of curcumin, topically, has been shown to accelerate wound contraction in streptozotocin-induced models, with higher concentrations of curcumin extracts correlating with improved wound healing outcomes []. In vitro studies, employing spectrophotometric methods and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), further support curcumin’s anti-inflammatory potential. These studies have demonstrated reductions in pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, as detailed in Table 3. Variations in these effects are influenced by curcumin concentration and the extraction methods used [,,,]. For instance, research by Indriani et al. (2018) highlighted that curcumin extract exhibited anti-inflammatory efficacy comparable to the positive control []. Similarly, Arisonya et al. (2018) reported a significant reduction in ulcers on the labial mucosa diameter in male white rats treated with curcumin extract topically, further validating its potent anti-inflammatory effects []. The anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin are closely associated with its photoprotective benefits. These include the inhibition of edema and erythema, as well as reductions in hyperplastic responses, inflammatory leukocyte infiltration, skin aging, and the risk of skin cancer formation [,,]. These findings highlight curcumin’s potential as a multifunctional agent in both therapeutic and cosmetic applications.
As a photoprotective agent, curcumin demonstrates considerable variability in SPF values, as outlined in Table 4. In vitro testing using UV–Vis spectroscopy, with ethanol as a blank, evaluated curcumin’s absorbance within the 290–320 nm wavelength range []. These analyses revealed that curcumin’s SPF values span from minimal protection (SPF 1–4) to ultra protection (SPF > 15) [,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,]. Table 4 highlights that SPF values of curcumin in Curcuma extracts are generally higher than those observed in formulated products, emphasizing the need to optimize curcumin concentrations in sunscreen formulations to enhance photoprotective efficacy [,]. Additionally, as shown in Table 4, Curcuma extracts at concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 15% exhibited SPF values between 1 and 27.40. Extracts with concentrations of 200–1500 ppm demonstrated SPF values ranging from approximately 0.33 to 37.46 [,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,]. These findings indicate a positive correlation between extract concentration and SPF value, suggesting that higher extract concentrations result in enhanced UV absorption and greater protection against UVB radiation [,]. This relationship highlights the potential for higher curcumin content to provide extended and more effective sun protection []. However, a notable limitation is the lack of detailed information regarding curcumin concentrations in different Curcuma species. This gap underscores the importance of further standardization and the quantification of curcumin content to maximize its potential as a photoprotective agent.
Several factors influence the SPF value generated by Curcuma extracts and curcumin, including the choice of solvent, extraction temperature, and formulation ingredients [,,,]. Research by Kanani et al. (2017) demonstrated that using ethyl acetate as a solvent at 30 °C resulted in higher SPF values compared with methanol at elevated temperatures []. This is attributed to ethyl acetate’s ability to extract more potent antioxidant compounds, which are strongly associated with increased SPF values [,,]. Antioxidant compounds extracted by ethyl acetate contain chromophores and aliphatic CH groups capable of absorbing UV rays, thereby enhancing photoprotective efficacy [,]. These findings underscore the importance of selecting an appropriate solvent and optimizing extraction temperature during the formulation process to maximize the efficacy of sunscreens derived from Curcuma extracts containing curcumin [,,,,]. Such considerations are critical to ensuring the development of effective and stable photoprotective products.
Curcumin enhances the effectiveness of sunscreen formulations by complementing other SPF-active ingredients, as evidenced by its multifunctional properties []. Acting as a skin protector, curcumin’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities provide substantial benefits [,,]. Specifically, its anti-inflammatory effects include the ability to reduce redness and tissue damage caused by inflammation following sunlight exposure [,]. Curcumin achieves this by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-β, IL-6, and TNF-α, while reducing arachidonic acid release through the suppression of phospholipase A2 and phospholipase C g1 activity [,]. Additionally, curcumin inhibits the synthesis of nitric oxide (NO), COX-2, and lipoxygenase, further mitigating inflammation [,]. As detailed in Table 5, plants containing curcumin protect skin cells from oxidative damage via their antioxidant properties, preserving cell membrane integrity and preventing oxidative degradation. The phenolic group in curcumin enables the scavenging of free radicals, providing additional photoprotection by absorbing UV light, reducing UV-induced oxidative damage, and decreasing TNF-α expression []. In summary, curcumin’s combined antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and UV-protective effects make it a valuable ingredient in sunscreen formulations, as demonstrated in Figure 3. These attributes highlight its potential to improve the overall efficacy and multifunctionality of sun care products.
Figure 3. Curcumin could be used in sunscreen formulations.
Studies, such as those conducted by Arizona and Zulkarnain (2018), have shown that increasing curcumin concentrations in lotions significantly enhances SPF values []. However, the impact of other excipients included in the formulation must also be considered, as these components can influence SPF values and alter the overall sun protection efficacy. Consequently, optimizing both the concentration of curcumin and the selection of suitable excipients is crucial to maximizing its photoprotective potential in sunscreen formulations. This strategic approach ensures the development of effective and stable sunscreen products that fully leverage curcumin’s properties.

5. Conclusions

Based on the reviewed literature, curcumin demonstrates significant potential as a sunscreen agent, primarily due to its ability to enhance SPF values through its synergistic antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and UV-protective properties. These activities collectively strengthen curcumin’s effectiveness as an SPF booster, providing dual protection against UV-induced damage. Increasing curcumin concentrations in sunscreen formulations has been shown to result in higher SPF values, further highlighting its potential utility. However, the inclusion of various excipients must be carefully considered, as they can influence SPF values and potentially affect the overall efficacy of the formulation. Therefore, further research is necessary to identify the optimal concentration of curcumin and to evaluate its interaction with excipients, ensuring the development of effective and stable sunscreen products.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M.S., R.S.S.A., S.S. and I.M.; and methodology, I.N.P., H.P.D., R.A.S. and R.N.A.; resources, S.S., I.M. and R.N.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M.S., R.S.S.A., I.N.P. and S.R.M.; writing—review and editing, A.M.S., H.P.D., R.A.S., I.M., E.A. and N.A.P.; Supervision, S.S. and N.A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Sriwidodo, Soraya Ratnawulan Mita, Eri Amalia, and Norisca Aliza Putriana for their invaluable assistance in editing the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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