The Functional Imperative: The Practical Role of Christian Angelic Beliefs in the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Abstract

The introduction of Christian angelology during the Ming and Qing dynasties was driven by strong practical needs. As intermediaries bridging the sacred and the secular, angels were endowed with crucial functions in core sacraments such as baptism and the Mass, including the purification of sins, protection, and the connection between God and humanity. Their participation in these rituals not only enhanced the sanctity of the ceremonies but also facilitated a dialogue with traditional Chinese spirits. Missionaries deliberately avoided abstract theological discussions about angels, instead emphasizing their role in accompanying and guiding believers in daily life. The concept of “guardian angels” addressed the spiritual needs of believers, while the imagery of angels in funeral rites helped reconstruct expressions of filial piety, thereby mitigating cultural conflicts between China and the West. At the same time, the localized understanding of angels among Chinese Catholics during this period focused on ritual practices and the affirmation of their own identity. The introduction of Christian angels during the Ming and Qing dynasties, with their practical dimensions, facilitated the indigenization process of Catholicism in China and provided new perspectives and pathways for interreligious and intercultural dialogue.

1. Introduction

The Christian discourse on angels extends beyond the metaphysical speculations akin to the scholastic question “How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?” For the ordinary Catholic believer, angels hold profound significance in both faith and practice. As we can observe, angels play an indispensable role in the religious lives of the faithful: they vividly appear in religious art and literature, and are integrated into daily life through scripture readings and liturgical celebrations. Compared to the insurmountable gap between God and humanity, angels are inherently closer to humans in both nature and connection, serving as crucial intermediaries between the divine and the secular.

The 16th-century European Reformation posed a challenge to the Catholic tradition of venerating angels. Within the theological framework of sola fide, reformers such as Martin Luther (1483–1546) vehemently opposed the Catholic veneration of saints and angels, arguing that such reverence should be reserved for God alone. However, the Roman Catholic Church steadfastly maintained its tradition of angelic veneration, considering it an essential component of Catholic spiritual life. In the faith practices of Catholics, praying to angels, the Virgin Mary, and saints is seen as a necessary aspect of a complete spiritual life.

In recent years, a growing number of scholars have begun to recognize the commonalities between Chinese and Western conceptions of spirits (guishen 鬼神/angels) as external forces independent from the human world in guiding individual moral practice. Regrettably, constrained by cultural differences and barriers, research on this topic by scholars from both traditions remains in its nascent stage, with most studies focusing primarily on ontological perspectives to elucidate the similarities and differences between angels and guishen.

However, what we must pay attention to is that during the Ming and Qing dynasties, missionaries introduced the doctrine of angels to China as a significant element of their evangelistic efforts. To them, angels were not only a key link in bridging Chinese and Western concepts of spirits but also a vital spiritual force that supported missionaries in maintaining their faith in a foreign land. This paper explores the practical aspects of the doctrine of angels in Ming and Qing China from three perspectives—religious rituals, manifestations in life, and spiritual life—aiming to deepen the understanding of the Christian perspective on angels.

2. Angels in Religious Rituals

Medieval scholastic philosophers held differing views on when guardian angels begin their protection of an individual. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) believed that a person does not have a personal guardian angel before birth, as, in his view, an unborn child is not yet a rational creature.1 In contrast, Bonaventure (1221–1274) argued that guardian angels intervene at the moment of conception, since the human soul begins to face the temptations of the devil even before birth (Johnson 2006, p. 199). Despite these disagreements, scholastic philosophers generally agreed on the significant role of guardian angels in human life.

Angels not only participate in an individual’s life journey from the moment of conception but also transcend abstract discussions about their number and nature, playing a crucial role in specific religious rituals. Take, for example, baptism, the first sacrament in a Catholic’s life, where the involvement of angels is essential. Many medieval artworks highlight this importance, often depicting angels standing beside the baptized, holding new garments that symbolize the new life after baptism (Keck 1998, p. 165). Similarly, the Gospels hint at the miraculous role of angels in baptism, mentioning stories where angels stir the waters used for baptism to heal the sick (John 5:4–7). Tertullian (150–230) was among the earliest to emphasize the role of angels in baptism, explicitly stating, “Not that in the waters we obtain the Holy Spirit; but in the water, under (the witness of) the angel, we are cleansed, and prepared for the Holy Spirit … Thus, too, does the angel, the witness of baptism, ‘make the paths straight’ for the Holy Spirit, who is about to come upon us, by the washing away of sins, which faith, sealed in (the name of) the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, obtains” (Tertullian 2006b, p. 1168). As Spinks points out, Tertullian, compared to other Christian scholars, creatively locates the sanctification of all waters in creation, rather than locating it to the baptism of Jesus. Tertullian believes that it is through the intervention of angels that the water used for baptism acquires its healing power, enabling believers to further receive the washing of the Holy Spirit (Spinks 2016, p. 32).

French Jesuit scholar Jean Daniélou (1905–1974) conducted relatively detailed research on this topic, noting that Tertullian’s description implies a dual process in baptism: the baptized first undergoes purification through the angelic washing with water, followed by the baptism of the Holy Spirit.2 Tertullian’s perspective had a significant influence at the time, as seen in the writings of Origen, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Didymus of Alexandria, each of whom elaborated on this idea. They emphasized that in the sacrament of baptism, angels, as messengers of the heavenly church and representatives of the incorporeal, along with priests, as messengers of the earthly church and representatives of the corporeal, provide baptism for the soul and body of the baptized, respectively (Daniélou 1987, p. 59).

Furthermore, Daniélou points out that angels not only participate in the sacrament of baptism but also establish a close spiritual relationship with believers during the preparatory period of the catechumenate: “Lord, deign to send your holy angel to protect your servants and guide them to the grace of your baptism”3 (Wilson 1894, p. 48). Daniélou argues, “They (angels) play an active role in the preparation process, just as the apostles were sent visibly to the Gentiles, angels are sent invisibly to the Church.” He emphasizes that angels, like the apostles, act as evangelists. As Eusebius commented, “This mission is also a struggle against idolatry, a battle against the demons who capture souls, and angels participate in this struggle invisibly” (Daniélou 1987, p. 57).

The emphasis placed by missionaries in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties on the sacrament of baptism stemmed primarily from two considerations. First, it was due to the unique nature of the ritual itself. As Xiao Qinghe noted, although the ritual does not possess inherent “efficacy”, it serves as a symbolic expression of identity, status, and power for a specific group, carrying significant sociocultural meaning. He particularly emphasized that Catholics during the Ming and Qing dynasties constructed and maintained their group identity through the practice of religious rituals (Xiao 2011, pp. 98–118). From the perspective of sociology of religion, participation in religious rituals was seen as a crucial marker distinguishing Catholic believers from other faith communities. As Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) stated, “The really religious beliefs are always common to a determined group, which makes profession of adhering to them and of practising the rites connected with them. They are not merely received individually by all the members of this group; they are something belong to the group, and make its unity”. (Durkheim 1961, p. 59). Based on this theoretical framework, the sacramental rituals of Catholicism were regarded as an important mechanism for missionaries to construct group boundaries. Through a series of formalized ritual performances, they deliberately maintained a distinction from other Chinese religious traditions, thereby establishing their unique religious identity. This practice of ritual was not only religiously significant but also a strategic expression of social distinction and cultural identity.

However, it is important to emphasize that, as Catholic believers, regularly participating in such liturgical activities is not merely about highlighting one’s faith identit:; it is also a necessary component for their salvation. The Roman Catholic Church underscored the necessity of the sacraments for salvation as early as the Council of Trent (1545–1563). The American theologian Louis Berkhof (1873–1957) provided an in-depth explanation of this, describing the sacraments as a form of “infused” sanctifying grace, a “supernatural” gift that enables the Word of God, already present, to manifest more fully in the hearts of believers. Therefore, when believers participate in these rituals, they are engaging in an intimate spiritual interaction with God (Berkhof 1983, p. 257). This perspective was further developed in the theological thought of the German Catholic theologian Erik Peterson (1890–1960), who argued that Christians, through the practice of these sacred rituals, could closely connect the “Heavenly Jerusalem” with the earthly Church (Ecclesia).4 Peterson arrived at an intriguing conclusion, noting that this liturgical practice has a dual interactive characteristic: on one hand, believers, by participating in the commemorative rituals held by the earthly Church, indirectly partake in the sacred liturgy offered to God by angels in heaven; on the other hand, angels also participate in the commemorative rituals of the earthly Church through its sacred liturgies (Peterson 1964, p. xi). This interactive relationship between heaven and earth, the sacred and the secular, not only enriches the theological depth of Catholic liturgy but also highlights its central role in the spiritual lives of believers.

Secondly, the importance of the sacrament of baptism lies not only in its role as the initiation rite for Catholics but also in its profound theological significance. The Jesuit Jacques Motel (1618–1692) provided an explanation in his work Shengxi Guiyi 聖洗規儀 (1689): “The Lord established seven sacraments, known in the original Western text as ‘Sacramenta’. Among these seven rites, baptism stands first. Baptism, referred to in the original text as ‘Baptismus’, was instituted to cleanse human sin, hence its name, Holy Baptism” (Motel 2009, p. 48). He further emphasized, “Baptism is the gate to the Kingdom of Heaven and the first step in cultivating virtue” (聖洗乃天國之門，修德之首功也。). He argued, “A person becomes a new being and a child of humanity upon leaving the mother’s womb, but only through receiving baptism does one become a citizen of heaven and a child of God. Therefore, baptism is considered a second birth” (Motel 2009, p. 67). This concept of baptism as a “second birth” (次生) not only highlights its pivotal role in the spiritual life of believers but also serves as a crucial entry point for missionaries to explain the Catholic doctrine of original sin to catechumens. Through the purifying process of baptism, missionaries were able to demonstrate the omnipotence of God and the universality of salvation.

However, it is noteworthy that in the catechetical works of missionaries during the Ming and Qing dynasties, references to the participation of angels in the sacrament of baptism are quite rare. Apart from Shengxi Guiyi, the role of angels is not mentioned in Shengshi Dianli 聖事典禮 (1675), a detailed guide to Catholic rites translated by Lodovico Buglio (1606–1682). Similarly, in the work Jinjiao lingxi Jielu 進教領洗捷錄 (1690–1696) by the mendicant friar Francisco Peris de la Concepción (1635–1701), although the entire process of receiving baptism by Catholics at the time is meticulously documented, there is no mention of angelic involvement. This neglect of the role of angels reflects the missionaries’ greater emphasis on the visible elements of ritual practice during that period, while relatively downplaying the emphasis on the invisible realm.

This characteristic is also evident in the expressions of Chinese Catholics. By examining the description of the baptismal process in Zhengshi Lueshuo 拯世略說 (1644) by the Chinese Catholic Zhu Zongyuan 朱宗元 (1625–?), it can be seen that he largely accepted the arrangements and teachings of the missionaries regarding this sacrament at the time. For Zhu Zongyuan, the significance of baptism was not only a means to cleanse oneself of sin, but more importantly, a way to distinguish his identity from that of non-believers—as he stated, “to differentiate from those outside the faith” (所以別乎教外之人). As Xiao Qinghe pointed out, baptism served as an external marker of conversion to Catholicism at the time, with its importance lying in a shift of identity (Xiao 2011, pp. 113–34). In this sense, there was no need to emphasize the participation of angels in the baptismal rites of Chinese Catholics during that period, as highlighting the power of God (in cleansing sin) and the transformation of their faith identity (through conversion) were their more pressing and practical concerns.5 This attitude reflects the localized understanding of the sacraments among Chinese Catholics, who prioritized the tangible and observable elements of the rituals over explorations of the invisible realm. This not only demonstrates the traditional Chinese emphasis on practical experience but also highlights the urgent need for identity affirmation in the faith practices of Ming and Qing Catholics.

Another reason is that emphasizing the participation of angels in baptism was in fact not a priority in Europe at the time either. Perhaps we can still use the explanation of “identity transformation” to interpret this phenomenon. When baptism gradually became a routine ritual for ordinary families after the 13th century, this sacrament lost some of its symbolic significance in the lives of Catholics. As Keck noted, when baptism ceased to be a key marker for determining whether someone was a Catholic, it also weakened its connection to the reception of guardian angels. Although baptism could still serve as an important sacrament for cleansing original sin and remain a marker of the first stage of sacramental life, it no longer functioned as a criterion for identifying someone as a Catholic. Instead, the Mass gradually became the primary way for Catholics to gather with saints and angels. In this regard, Keck pointed out that hints of this shift can be seen in the works of Bonaventure, who, while rarely describing angelic involvement in baptism, frequently linked angels to the Mass (Keck 1998, p. 166).

The Mass is one of the central sacraments in the Christian tradition. From the 9th century onward, as Christianity spread widely across Europe, the Mass became the most important sacramental activity, and regular participation in it was a key criterion for determining whether someone had converted. Through several ecumenical councils, the Roman Church established the central role of the Mass in the sacramental life of medieval Christians, calling it “the most Holy Sacrament”. They also defined the regulations related to the Mass and emphasized its significance for both the living and the deceased: for the living, it served as a bond to establish an intimate relationship with Christ; for the deceased, it was an important means of intercession for the salvation of their souls.

During the Mass liturgy, the most central and sacred parts are the offering of the sacrifice to the Lord and the consecration of the offerings, which aim to commemorate the passion of Jesus Christ and his redemption of humanity. Before the Eucharistic liturgy begins, the servers must fully prepare the altar, placing the offerings that will become the body and blood of Jesus Christ and arranging the altar cloths, the chalice veil, and the missal. Then, the congregation offers bread and wine, which are placed on the altar by the celebrant, followed by the recitation of the Prex Eucharistica. During this process, the presiding priest invites the congregation to pray together, offering thanksgiving and petitions to God in the name of the entire faith community. Notably, the presiding priest often specifically prays for angels to carry the offerings from the earthly altar to the heavenly altar. Daniélou points out that the participation of angels holds special significance in the Eucharistic liturgy: the Mass is essentially a sacred participation in the heavenly liturgy, reflecting the worship of the Holy Trinity by spiritual creatures. It is through the mediation of angels that the Eucharistic offering to God is brought into heaven (Daniélou 1987, p. 62). Keck also emphasizes that angels, as crucial intermediaries, ensure the completeness of the Mass: if the offerings are not accepted by God, the ritual cannot be considered fully accomplished (Keck 1998, p. 176).

Bonaventure, in his work On How to Prepare for the Celebration of the Mass, also emphasizes the interactive relationship between humans and angels during the Mass. He believes that through the sacrifice and the Eucharist, the connection between humans and angels can be strengthened. This connection not only enhances the spiritual power to resist the devil but also provides believers with a model for emulating the holy lives of angels. For instance, Bonaventure once instructed a Franciscan friar to seek inner peace by imitating angels before celebrating the Mass (Keck 1998, p. 176). It can be said that angels, as “others” fundamentally distinct from humans, play a significant role in substantively participating in the spiritual and faith lives of those who pray through sacred religious rituals, helping them complete their spiritual lives. Moreover, this influence also extends to the clergy participating in the liturgical rites. In The Dialogue on Miracles (Dialogus Miraculorum, 1220) by Caesarius of Heisterbach (1180–1240), there is a story about a guilty priest named Erwin who, after concluding a Mass, accidentally dropped the holy cross. Due to his own sins, the attending angels hid the fallen cross, preventing such a sinful person from touching the sacred vessel again (Heisterbach 1929, pp. 161–62).

In stark contrast to the relative absence of angels in baptismal rites, numerous Catholic catechistic works from the Ming and Qing periods provide detailed accounts of the significant role angels play in the Mass. In Tianzhu Jiaoyao Zhulue 天主教要注略 (c. 1700) by the Italian Franciscan Basilio Brollo da Gemona (1648–1704), the celebration of the Mass is described as follows: “During the Mass, one must not look around carelessly or grow weary and distracted. Although the Lord is not visibly present on the altar, He is truly there. The angels descend in great numbers and stand in solemn reverence. How can we not be reverent? Therefore, we should shut out external distractions and focus our inner thoughts, ensuring our hearts do not wander. We should meditate on how God has shown us grace, loved us, and suffered for us. Participating in the Mass in this manner will surely bring great benefit. Otherwise, we risk committing the sin of irreverence”. He emphasizes the need for sincere reverence during the Mass and notes the participation of angels in this sacred ritual dedicated to God (Brollo 2014, p. 530). Similarly, Giulio Aleni (1582–1649), in the preface to Misa Jiyi 彌撒祭義 (1629), highlights the appearance of angels during the liturgy to underscore the sacredness of the Mass: “In the liturgy of the church, when the priest elevates the Holy Body, even the angels joyfully gather to protect it. How fortunate are those who can be present! On this day, people come regardless of wind or rain, from near and far, demonstrating the steadfastness of their faith, which shames the lazy and inspires them to strive” (Aleni 2014, p. 388). Aleni further emphasizes the loftiness of the liturgy by describing the interaction between participants, angels, and saints: “The world considers it an honor to meet a saint, as such encounters are rare. But what if, not only could you see a saint, but you could also stand in the same hall with angels? How great an honor would that be? In the Mass, God Himself descends, and the heavenly hosts gather around Him. Sometimes, He allows people to see clearly that they are sharing the same hall with angels, serving the same Lord, as if experiencing a glimpse of heaven” (Aleni 2014, p. 404).

Likewise, the Italian Jesuit Francesco Brancati (1607–1671), in his work Shengti Guiyi 聖體規儀 (1658), elaborates on the manifestation and role of angels during the Mass: “One should meditate on how the Lord Jesus awaits us on the altar, with countless angels descending from above, below, and all around, reverently awaiting God’s commands. One should also reflect on how, at the moment of receiving the Holy Body, one’s guardian angel, by God’s command, presents us sinners before the throne of God” (Brancati 2009, p. 324). By emphasizing the presence of angels in the liturgy, Brancati not only highlights the sacredness of the Mass but also reveals the dual role of angels in the sacraments: they are both solemn witnesses to the sacred liturgy and indispensable mediators between believers and God. This spiritual exercise enables believers to more deeply grasp the Mass as a sacred mystery connecting heaven and earth, as well as the vital role angels play in the plan of salvation. Brancati further advises that believers should begin spiritual preparation two or three days before participating in the Mass: “One should pray to the Blessed Mother, the guardian angels, one’s patron saint, and the saint of the month, asking for virtue and strength to purify and focus the heart” (Brancati 2009, pp. 317–18). This preparation not only reflects reverence for the sacraments but also underscores the companionship and guidance of angels in the spiritual lives of believers. Through such teachings, Brancati closely integrates angelology with sacramental theology, providing Ming and Qing Catholics with a comprehensive guide to the Mass’s spirituality.

In summary, we can clearly see two roles of angels in the Mass liturgy. Their presence not only highlights the sacredness of the ritual itself, demonstrating the worship of all creation toward God, but also, as beings distinct from humans, their emergence also made the practice of liturgy more rigorous.

3. Angels in the Journey of Life

The most practical and significant manifestation of angels in an individual’s life occurs at the moment of death. Influenced by the Western emphasis on the duality of body and soul since ancient Greece, Christianity does not fear death, as “it is appointed for man to die once” (Hebrews 9:27). They emphasize the overcoming of death through faith, for “as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive” (1 Corinthians 15:22). Moreover, they believe that death in this world is merely a prelude to resurrection and entry into heaven. Therefore, in the works of many Christian scholars, one can find discussions on the training and preparation for death. For example, Martin Luther, in A Sermon on Preparing to Die (1519), explains the essence of human fear of death, stating: “Death looms so large and is terrifying because our foolish and fainthearted nature has etched its image too vividly within itself and constantly fixes its gaze on it” (Luther 1969, p. 101). He further points out: “We should familiarize ourselves with death during our lifetime, inviting death into our presence when it is still at a distance and not on the move” (Luther 1969, pp. 101–2). In Luther’s view, the fear of death stems from a natural resistance and a lack of understanding of it. For this reason, addressing death in an appropriate manner has long been an important topic of concern in Christianity.

As messengers who guide human souls to heaven, the significance of angels at the conclusion of life is undeniable. According to the guidance of the Roman Missal, during the Requiem Mass, the priest emphasizes the relationship between the deceased’s soul and the angels. He not only requests the angels to receive the soul of the deceased and bring it to heaven but also prays to God to not deliver it (the soul) into the hands of the enemy, nor forget it forever, but command holy angels to receive it and bring it to paradise. After the deceased’s body is laid to rest, the priest leads the congregation in singing the In Paradisum, praying to the angels to carry the souls of the deceased to heaven. Daniélou suggests that during the soul’s journey to heaven, it receives assistance from two types of angels: the “angels of the earth” and the “angels of heaven”. The former are the guardian angels of individuals, responsible for guiding the souls of the deceased to heaven, while the latter are the guardians of heaven, who welcome these souls upon their arrival (Daniélou 1987, pp. 97–98).

Indeed, the presence of angels at the moment of death has been discussed in the works of many early Church Fathers. For example, Tertullian, in De Anima (210–213), describes angels as the “arraigners” of the soul, stating: “Then it tells out what it sees; then it exults or it fears, according as it finds what lodging is prepared for it, as soon as it (the soul) sees the very angel’s face, that arraigner of souls, the Mercury6 of the poets” (Tertullian 2006a, p. 370). In Daniélou’s works, we also find references to other Church Fathers who elaborated on this idea, such as Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, and John Chrysostom. They all discussed the significant role angels play in guiding human souls. As John Chrysostom remarked: “If we need a guide when traveling from one city to another, how much more does the soul, when it breaks free from the body and journeys toward the future life, need someone to show it the way?” (Daniélou 1987, p. 96).

Luther also vividly described the scene of angels descending at the moment of a person’s death, stating: “In the hour of his death no Christian should doubt that he is not alone. He can be certain, as the sacraments point out, that a great many eyes are upon him: first, the eyes of God and of Christ himself, for the Christian believes his words and clings to his sacraments, then also, the eyes of the dear angels, of the saints, and of all Christians. There is no doubt, as the Sacrament of the Alter indicates, that all of these in a body run to him as one of their own, help him overcome sin, death, and hell, and bear all things with him…If God looks upon you, all the angels, saints, and all creatures will fix their eyes upon you. And if you remain in that faith, all of them will uphold you with their hands. And when you soul leaves your body, they will be on hand to receive it, and you cannot perish” (Luther 1969, p. 112).

In the Catholic community in China during the Ming and Qing dynasties, angels held a more practical significance, particularly in their role during Catholic funerals. Their presence not only distinguished Catholic rituals from traditional Chinese ceremonies but also addressed contemporary criticisms that Catholicism neglected the proper respect for the deceased.7 According to Standaert, when missionaries faced accusations of being unfilial from the Chinese, they were likely to respond by advocating for a solemn Catholic ritual in the funerals of Chinese Catholics. This was because in Chinese tradition, funeral ceremonies were an important way to demonstrate filial piety (Standaert 2008, p. 120). Similarly, according to Menegon’s research, while the Reformation in Europe at that time triggered a “crisis of representation” through criticism of traditional religious rituals and practices, Western missionaries entering China were also continuously updating their development of “ritual theories” through interactions with traditional Chinese religious ceremonies (Menegon 2013, p. 193).

The Jesuit Thomas Ignatius Dunyn-Szpot (1644–1713), in his work Collectanea Historiae Sinensis ab anno 1641 ad annum 1700, recorded the regulations established by missionaries for Catholic funeral rites during their exile in Guangzhou. He wrote: “In the funeral procession, a statue of Our Saviour nailed on the cross should lead, followed by an image of the Most High Mother of God, and finally an icon of St. Michael, the first among the angels, all carried with the splendour corresponding to the richness or poverty of the place” (Standaert 2008, p. 121). Similarly, we can observe such practices in the description of the funeral of the Jesuit Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–1688) in Beijing, as recorded in a letter from the French Jesuit Jean de Fontaney (1643–1710) to Father François de La Chaise (1624–1709). Fontaney noted that in the funeral procession, immediately following the holy cross and the image of the Virgin Mary holding Jesus was a painting of a guardian angel. Similarly grand ceremonies and requirements were also evident in the funeral rites of the Jesuit Gabriel de Magalhães (1610–1677). According to the instructions of Buglio and others, in addition to a luxurious coffin, they specially prepared a pavilion for the holy cross, a pavilion for the image of the Virgin Mary, and a pavilion for the image of the archangel. The display of exquisite images of the Virgin Mary and angels by the missionaries during funeral ceremonies was also closely related to the traditional Chinese practice of carrying statues of elephants, camels, and tigers in funeral processions. By replacing these animal idols with images of the Virgin Mary and angels, they demonstrated and emphasized the distinctiveness of Catholic faith (Standaert 2008, p. 135). Of course, the most significant meaning of the angelic images in these rituals was to convey to the world that angels would accompany and escort the soul of the deceased to its final destination in heaven.

From the various religious rituals discussed above, we can observe the numerous interactions between angels and humans in practical life. The closeness of their relationship stems on one hand from the nature of angels being more akin to humans, and on the other from the limitations of human rationality, which often prevent them from fully understanding God’s plans. Therefore, when faced with the inexplicable dilemmas of virtue and fortune in life, humans naturally need beings like angels—as messengers of God—to guide and protect them. In this sense, angels seem to play a more vivid role than God, as they can personally participate in our lives. From witnessing our birth, to guiding us as we grow, and finally to the moment when the requiem of life sounds, angels have always existed in a vivid form, caring for and protecting us, guiding our souls toward heaven after death.

And there was a certain beggar named Lazarus, who was laid at his gate, full of sores, and desiring to be fed with the crumbs which fell from the rich man’s table. Moreover, the dogs came and licked his sores. And it came to pass, that the beggar died, and was carried by the angels into Abraham’s bosom.

(Luke 16:20–2)

4. Angels in Spiritual Life

In addition to their participation in religious rituals, angels also play a significant role in the spiritual lives of individuals. During the 16th and 17th centuries, when Western missionaries traveled vast distances to the East to spread the Catholic faith, their missionary journeys were often fraught with great risks and could even mark the final chapter of their lives. With such determination, many missionaries, from the moment they left Europe, had already devoted their lives entirely to the work of God. One notable example is Francis Xavier (1506–1552), one of the founders of the Society of Jesus, who came to the East with the lifelong aspiration of bringing Catholic faith to mainland China, though he passed away on the island of Shangchuan 上川without fulfilling this dream. Similarly, the late Ming scholar Wang Zheng 王徵, in documenting the Eastern journey of the Italian priest Agustin Tudeschini (1598–1643), vividly described the hardships endured by missionaries, stating: “Traveling by sea, they faced many storms and hardships, the suffering of which is beyond words” (Wang 2011, p. 157). Faced with the risks encountered by the missionaries, Wang Zheng expressed his deep admiration, saying: “This gentleman neither married nor pursued official titles, nor sought fame or profit. Driven solely by a desire to honor God and love others, he traveled ninety thousand miles to grace our Eastern land, enduring countless dangers and perils without the slightest hesitation or retreat” (Wang 2011, p. 160).

The resolve of the missionaries was bolstered not only by their faith in God but also by the significant role played by angels. When priests venturing to the East encountered various difficulties and challenges, they often turned to pray to angels and saints, seeking their assistance in overcoming obstacles and defeating the devil.8 In fact, the Jesuits were strong advocates of “the cult of angels” from the very beginning. Their founder, Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), emphasized in several works the significant role of angels in personal spiritual practice, clearly stating that angels could intercede for humans to attain salvation. Under the influence of Cardinal Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) and Francesco Albertini (1469–1510), the Jesuits later elevated the veneration of angels to its peak. Moreover, Claudio Acquaviva (1543–1615), who served as the Superior General of the Jesuits during the Ming and Qing dynasties, was himself a devout devotee of angel worship (Bailey 1999, pp. 55, 243, 244). Additionally, in two famous paintings by the 17th-century artist Paul Rubens (1577–1640), The Miracles of St. Ignatius of Loyola (c. 1617/18) and The Miracles of St. Francis Xavier (c. 1617/18), such scenes are depicted. In these paintings, as the two saints stand at the center of the altar preaching the Catholic faith to the people, several guardian angels are seen in the air, holding high the cross to help them drive away demons (Figure 1 and Figure 2).

Daniélou specifically mentions that those who work for the Church receive special protection from angels, noting, as Origen stated, “The apostles had angels assisting them in their preaching, helping them spread the Gospel” (Daniélou 1987, p. 72). Similarly, in the writings of missionaries who entered China during the Ming and Qing periods, we can clearly see their gratitude for the guardianship of angels. As the Spanish Dominican friar Francisco Varo (1627–1687) stated in his work Zongdu Cuoyao 總牘撮要 (c. 1668): “To my guardian angel, the exalted messenger of the Lord of heaven and earth, who has been with me from the moment I entered this world, never leaving my side, teaching me goodness, reproving my sins, suppressing evil spirits so they cannot harm my life or deceive my soul. When I walk, you guide my path. When I am idle, you urge me to diligence. When I am sorrowful, you comfort my heart. When I am about to face danger, you foresee it and prepare me in advance. When I achieve merit, you present it to God, earnestly seeking rewards for me. When I am about to sin, you plead for my forgiveness” (Varo 1668, unpublished9). In Varo’s description, we see the special significance of angels for missionaries: they are not only vital companions on their preaching journey, “never leaving my side”, (須臾不離) but also steadfast allies in “suppressing evil spirits” (抑鎮邪魔).10 Daniélou also pointed out that angels on one hand protect preachers from the assaults of the devil, and on the other assist them in spreading the Catholic faith (Daniélou 1987, p. 72).

Personal spiritual practice is a crucial component of the faith life of Catholics, and angels, as messengers of God, play an extremely important role in this process. Compared to God, angels seem to engage with people’s lives in a more tangible and relatable way. According to Peter Brown, for the people of “late antiquity”,11 angels were entrusted with the duty of caring for individuals. Their closeness was not only that of a constant companion but also represented an upward extension of the individual. In his view, during that time, whether in moments of crisis or in their daily lives, people consistently turned to their faith and the presence of these “invisible companions” for guidance, comfort, and protection. This reliance on the spiritual realm was a defining feature of their religious experience (Brown 1981, pp. 51–52). Heathcote James offered a vivid metaphor to describe this relationship: “For those who find God and His rules too daunting, angels serve as a more convenient compromise—fluffy, meringue, kind, and non-judgmental. They are like aspirin, accessible to everyone” (James 2001, p. 22).

In various Catholic prayers, we can observe the profound significance of angels to humans. People not only pray to their guardian angels in daily life: “My guardian angel, since God has appointed you to care for me, I ask you to always protect, guide, and govern me. Amen” (Prayer to the Guardian Angel), but they also seek protection from evil during fixed annual feast days dedicated to angels. For example, on September 29, the feast day commemorating the archangels, the faithful often pray: “Saint Michael the Archangel, defend us in battle. Be our protection against the wickedness and snares of the devil. May God rebuke him, we humbly pray, and do thou, O Prince of the heavenly hosts, by the power of God, cast into hell Satan and all the evil spirits who prowl about the world seeking the ruin of souls. Amen” (Prayer to Saint Michael the Archangel). During such prayers, people often welcome the presence of angels by burning incense and playing music, believing that angels can participate in their prayers through the fragrance in the air and the beauty of the melodies (Ashton 2002, pp. 235–47).

Missionaries who came to China during the Ming and Qing dynasties placed great emphasis on the participation of believers in the feast days dedicated to angels. The Portuguese Jesuit Manuel Dias Junior (1574–1659), in his work Shengjing Zhijie 聖經直解 (1642), mentioned two reasons for this: “Today, the Holy Church has established the feast days of the angels for two purposes: first, to encourage us to constantly reflect on, give thanks for, and receive the many graces bestowed by the angels, as they continually descend to guide, protect, and care for us; second, to celebrate the exalted dignity, immense blessings, profound virtues, great power, and vast knowledge of the angels”(Dias 2014, p. 227). He explained the two significant meanings of the angelic feast days: one to express gratitude for their protection, and the other to glorify their power.

Similarly, Brancati emphasized the importance of participating in the feast days commemorating angels, noting that God grants a special “light of the heart” (心光) on the days of baptism and the angelic feasts. This “light of the heart” enables people to “see clearly, avoid evil, pursue good, and preserve their souls” (Brancati 2009, pp. 343–44). Furthermore, Brancati likened the relationship between angels and human souls to that of “brothers” among spiritual creatures, stating: “Angels and human souls are like brothers. They fulfill God’s command to love humans, just as an elder brother loves his younger sibling, never leaving their side, guiding them toward good, warning them against evil, offering their merits, and seeking forgiveness for their sins … Therefore, people should first give thanks to God, and then to the angels” (Brancati 2009, pp. 344–45). Brancati believed that angels care for human souls like elder brothers, and thus people should express their gratitude to angels on their feast days.

Daniélou also emphasized the value of angels in personal spiritual life, noting that beyond helping people resist demons, the more important aspect is the believers’ imitation of the angels (Daniélou 1987, p. 83). Indeed, as we have discussed earlier, angels, as beings distinct from humans, not only serve as sacred “others” who help regulate people’s behavior but also provide a model for believers to actively emulate. By imitating the holy angels and saints, believers can purify their souls and draw closer to God. Daniélou pointed out that souls oriented toward God are considered akin to angels. He cited Gregory of Nyssa’s description of his sister Macrina’s saintly life: “(She) lived in the flesh but was not weighed down by the body; her life was light and ethereal, and she walked on high with the heavenly powers (i.e., the angels)” (Daniélou 1987, p. 89).

Daniélou, based on Pseudo-Dionysius’s classification of angelic hierarchies, proposed that angels participate in and influence human lives through three modes: (1) purification, (2) illumination, and (3) unification.

According to Daniélou, purification refers to the cleansing of the depths of the soul by angels, removing the blindness caused by the flesh that hinders the soul’s union with God. He further noted that this purifying function belongs to the Seraphim, the highest order of angels in Pseudo-Dionysius’s celestial hierarchy. In On the Celestial Hierarchy, Pseudo-Dionysius stated: “For someone may object that not one of the inferior Angels, but one himself enrolled amongst the very highest Beings cleanses the Prophet” (Pseudo-Dionysius 1894, p. 39).

Regarding the illumination provided by angels, Aquinas offered a thorough discussion in Summa Theologica. According to Aquinas, although the highest illumination and enlightenment come from God, human reason is limited and cannot fully grasp the “pure intellectual truths” revealed by God. Therefore, angels are needed to present these truths in a perceptible form to humans. In this way, the lower intellectual capacity of humans is strengthened through the action of angelic intellect. It is evident that Aquinas’s understanding was significantly influenced by Pseudo-Dionysius’s hierarchy of angels. In his discussion of the angelic orders, Pseudo-Dionysius repeatedly emphasized that angels, according to their hierarchical order, influence human ranks from the highest to the lowest, stating: “But from this order again, in due degree, the second, and from the second, the third, and from the third our Hierarchy is religiously conducted to the Beginning above beginning, and End of all good order, according to the self-same law of well-ordered regularity, in Divine harmony and proportion” (Pseudo-Dionysius 1894, p. 37). Daniélou pointed out that it is through the illumination and purification of the soul by angels that they guide humans to the pinnacle of spiritual life (Daniélou 1987, p. 87).

As for unification, according to Daniélou’s explanation, the soul’s journey toward God is closely intertwined with angels, not only because the soul’s ascent is aided by angels but also because people can assimilate their spiritual lives with the angels. He pointed out that through such a spiritual life, the human soul can reacquaint itself with the angels (Daniélou 1987, p. 88). As we have already discussed, individuals can purify their souls and ascend to the ranks of angels by emulating the angels and saints. Daniélou also referred to this “unification” of the soul with angels as the soul’s detachment from sensory life (Daniélou 1987, p. 89).

Despite the significant practical role of angels in personal faith life, missionaries during the Ming and Qing periods rarely discussed angels in detail in their writings. This may be due to two factors. On one hand, discussions about angels touch on the core of the Catholic faith. Understanding angels requires an absolute belief in Catholicism. As in the Christian tradition, angels are often described as “non-corporeal” and “spiritual” beings, indicating that their existence cannot be perceived through ordinary senses. Additionally, the unique roles and missions of angels posed challenges for missionaries in explaining them appropriately. They found that introducing angels without a foundation of faith could easily lead to misunderstandings among the Chinese people, who might interpret Catholicism as a form of polytheism. On the other hand, the primary strategy of the Jesuits, who were the leading missionaries during the Ming and Qing periods, was to spread knowledge and science. Although their ultimate goal was to sow the seeds of faith, the cultural differences between China and the West initially made them hesitant to challenge Chinese traditions directly from the perspective of faith itself. Despite the close connection between angels and the core of faith, it was difficult for missionaries to elaborate on this topic at the very beginning of their mission in China. In other words, the deepening of Catholic faith in Ming and Qing China required a gradual process, starting with philosophical and ethical discussions before reaching the core of faith. For this reason, science and ethics, which were more readily accepted by the Chinese, served as more convenient entry points for the missionaries.

Unlike the stance taken by the Jesuits, the mendicant orders, which arrived in China later, placed greater emphasis on theological and faith-based discussions. In addition to the prayers to guardian angels mentioned in Zongdu Zuoyao by Varo, the angels, the Virgin Mary, and saints are widely found in the catechetical works of these mendicant friars. For example, the Spanish Dominican Arcadio del Rosario (1641–1686), in his work Renlei Zhenangao 人類真安稿 (1680), not only mentions that God “preserves me for life and appoints an angel to guard me” (Rosario 2013, p. 113) but also emphasizes that people should “learn from the angels in following God’s holy will” (Rosario 2013, p. 130). At the same time, Rosario also highly valued the practice of reciting prayers in daily life, referring to it as learning the “language of angels” (天神之語). He stated: “While we are in this world, aspiring to reach the Kingdom of Heaven, the language spoken there is that of the angels” (Rosario 2013, p. 131). He pointed out that this could be achieved in two ways: through the Lord’s Prayer and through the Hail Mary. In Rosario’s view, such prayers are like “weapons” that can save people from the sins and sufferings of the world. Similarly, Rosario often shared popular edifying stories of the time to illustrate the importance of reciting prayers and the significant role of angels in this practice. One such story reads: “At times, those who were previously seen surrounded by demons are now seen, while reciting prayers, accompanied by many angels descending, placing heavenly crowns upon their heads. At the hour of death, God reveals the time of their passing, and the Virgin Mary also descends to comfort and carry them to heaven” (Rosario 2013, p. 209). This emphasizes that people can invoke the presence of angels and the Virgin Mary through the recitation of prayers.

There is no doubt that angels play a significant role in the personal religious lives of both clergy and lay believers. Through prayers to angels, people can more tangibly feel the power of faith. The presence of angels reassures them that even if the image of God remains so elusive that they cannot glimpse even a fraction of His essence, they can still experience God’s real participation in their lives through the angels, listen to their troubles, respond to their prayers, and protect them from sin in critical moments.

Finally, I would like to conclude with a letter written by the Franciscan missionary Miguel Fernandez Oliver (1665–1726), who served in China, to his friends back in Europe:

Regarding the foreign roads along which the Lord, who is the sole protector of this mission, calls his children, I might fill many pages with what I have seen and heard. I will merely say that I express gratitude to Your Paternity for having brought me from Europe and America—a wise man does not need a long explanation—in order to come to where I see the mercy of God in abundance. In the past year, coming down a road that I must have traveled on more that sixty times, without knowing how, I went astray and came to find that the Lord wanted me to look for, which was an abended boy who shortly after being baptized, died. And I found my way back to the road, doubtless in payment for having placed that soul in his Father’s kingdom. And there I hope, through the great mercy of the Lord, I also prepare to go, in spite of experiencing so many detours in my life, to where that little angel has already gone.

(Margiotti 1975, p. 853)

The emotions expressed by Father Fernandez in his letter may be seen as a reflection of the shared sentiments of all the missionaries who, driven by the mission to save souls, traveled to the East during the Ming and Qing periods. What supported their unwavering faith was perhaps the angels, who serve as God’s representatives in heaven. These missionaries, aspiring to emulate the angels, dedicated themselves to becoming God’s spokespersons on earth, making the salvation of suffering human souls their ultimate lifelong pursuit.

5. Conclusions

Angels, as unique sacred beings, are not only distinguished by their theoretical existence as spiritual entities separate from humans and God but also and more importantly by their practical role in human spiritual life. As Keck pointed out, in the Middle Ages, angels fulfilled the needs of various groups of people and played a significant role in their lives, being closely intertwined with their daily existence (Keck 1998, p. 209). In fact, people could almost feel the presence of angels everywhere in their lives.12 In particular, their involvement at the critical moments of birth and death (according to Christian tradition, receiving baptism is considered a second birth) provides important assistance in helping people better understand life and face death. One might believe that from the moment of birth, a personal angel has been guarding them against the assaults of the devil and will guide their soul to heaven after the body perishes. Although this understanding remains within the realm of faith, its significance for individual life cannot be overlooked. Death is an inevitable outcome, and thus how to accept it becomes the ultimate question everyone must contemplate. Dominic White refers to this concern as a “cultural universal”, noting its widespread presence in various cultural traditions across humanity (White 2005, pp. 572–73). This timeless and cross-cultural commonality precisely underscores the vital support angels provide to the human spiritual world and their practical relevance.

Although traditional Confucianism regards the “Three Immortalities” (To establish words 立言, To establish virtue 立德, To establish deeds 立功) as the spiritual pursuit to achieve personal value and transcend death, this elite view of life and death may be too profound for the general public. Ordinary people are more inclined to place the ultimate meaning of life in some sacred other. In this sense, compared to God as the absolute other, angels undoubtedly evoke a greater sense of closeness. People may not be able to describe God in a very concrete way, but angels, in the expressions or understandings of many at the time, often appeared in very specific forms, protecting and guiding people’s lives. Ricci recognized that the Chinese guishen share many similarities with the angels in the Christian tradition: the guishen are spiritual beings that are present and active in the natural world and in human beings, and yet they are not absorbed within things or people (Ricci 2016, p. 143). Moreover, Ricci argued that the spirits obey God, who sends them as messengers or ministers (Ricci 2016, p. 150). In fact, we find little support in Confucianism about the guishen obeying the will of Shangdi, but the Confucianism of the Song dynasty asserted that the guishen by their nature are connected to li and taiji.

This is precisely why the discussions on angels and guishen between China and the West during the Ming and Qing Dynasties became a crucial aspect of Confucian–Christian dialogue at the time. These debates not only touched upon the core of Catholic monotheistic belief but also intersected with China’s ancient traditions of ancestral and Confucian veneration. Among Chinese Catholics who held a favorable view of the Catholic faith, differing degrees of exposure to the religion led them to reinterpret and assimilate Western spirits (angels) as intellectual resources—either to “supplement Confucianism with Christianity” 以耶補儒 or to “transcend Confucianism through Christianity” 以耶超儒. However, there were also anti-missionary scholars and Buddhist monks who clung to the distinction between “Chinese and barbarian” 夷夏之別 and resisted the intrusion of Catholic spirits. Such an absolute and exclusivist “fundamentalism” not only reflects a misunderstanding of the essence of religious tradition but also underscores the need to reexamine and reassess the content and boundaries of Chinese tradition itself.

Today, revisiting the concept of angels not only provides a new perspective for understanding medieval scholasticism and Christian theology but also offers insights for contemporary cultural exchange through comparative studies of Chinese and Western views on spirits during the Ming and Qing periods. On a deeper level, in an era marked by a lack of faith and the various dilemmas brought about by modernity, reexamining the value of angels may help people regain confidence in the face of adversity. In this sense, we should perhaps adopt a more universal perspective to understand “angels”, who need not be confined to the traditional image of wings and halos.13 In fact, any presence that brings hope to life—whether a person, a belief, or a force—can be seen as an “angel” in the modern sense. This open understanding not only reflects the most important practical aspect of angels in the contemporary spiritual world but also opens new directions for the study of religious studies today.