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Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives
by
Giovanni Martinotti 1,2, Rita Santacroce 1,2,*
, Mauro Pettorruso 3, Chiara Montemitro 1, Maria Chiara Spano 1, Marco Lorusso 1, Massimo Di Giannantonio 1 and Arturo G. Lerner 4,5
Giovanni Martinotti 1,2, Rita Santacroce 1,2,*, Mauro Pettorruso 3, Chiara Montemitro 1, Maria Chiara Spano 1, Marco Lorusso 1, Massimo Di Giannantonio 1 and Arturo G. Lerner 4,5
1
Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio”, 66100 Chieti, Italy
2
Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology, Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Herts AL10 9AB, UK
3
Institute of Psychiatry and Psychology, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, 00168 Rome, Italy
4
Lev Hasharon Mental Health Medical Center, Pardessya 42100, Israel
5
Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69121, Israel
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Brain Sci. 2018, 8(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8030047
Received: 4 February 2018 / Revised: 12 March 2018 / Accepted: 13 March 2018 / Published: 16 March 2018
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Changes in Drug Abuse Scenario: The Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Phenomenon)
Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) is a rare, and therefore, poorly understood condition linked to hallucinogenic drugs consumption. The prevalence of this disorder is low; the condition is more often diagnosed in individuals with a history of previous psychological issues or substance misuse, but it can arise in anyone, even after a single exposure to triggering drugs. The aims of the present study are to review all the original studies about HPPD in order to evaluate the following: (1) the possible suggested etiologies; (2) the possible hallucinogens involved in HPPD induction; (3) the clinical features of both HPPD I and II; (4) the possible psychiatric comorbidities; and (5) the available and potential therapeutic strategies. We searched PubMed to identify original studies about psychedelics and Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD). Our research yielded a total of 45 papers, which have been analyzed and tabled to provide readers with the most updated and comprehensive literature review about the clinical features and treatment options for HPPD.
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Keywords:
Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder; flashbacks; hallucinogenic substances; LSD; psychedelics; visual disturbances; perceptual disturbances
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MDPI and ACS Style
Martinotti, G.; Santacroce, R.; Pettorruso, M.; Montemitro, C.; Spano, M.C.; Lorusso, M.; Di Giannantonio, M.; Lerner, A.G. Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives. Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 47.
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