Prevalence, Risk Factors for Exposure, and Socio-Economic Impact of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Karenga District, Karamoja Region, Uganda
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Determination of Prevalence of PPR
2.2.1. Study Design and Sample Size
2.2.2. Clinical Examination and Blood Samples
2.2.3. Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent (cELISA) Assay
2.3. Determination of the Socio-Economic Impact and Risk Factors for Exposure to SRM
2.3.1. Individual Interviews
2.3.2. Focus Group Discussions
Simple Ranking for Common Diseases of Small Ruminants
Pairwise Ranking for PPR and Other Diseases
Proportional Piling for Morbidity and Mortality (PPMM)
Impact Matrix Scoring for Socio-Economic Impact of PPR
2.3.3. Key Informant Interviews
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Signalment of Goats and Sheep Sampled
3.2. Observed Clinical Signs in the Herds
3.3. Seroprevalence of Anti-SRM Antibodies
3.4. Univariate Analysis of Risk Factors
3.5. Multivariable Risk Factor Analysis regarding Exposure to SRM
3.6. Socio-Economic Impact of PPR in Karenga District
3.6.1. Individual Farmer Interviews
3.6.2. Focus Group Discussions
Farmers’ Understanding of Diseases of Goats and Sheep
Pairwise Ranking of PPR Relative to Other Diseases
Disease Incidence and Fatalities
Impact Matrix Scoring of the Socio-Economic Impacts of PPR in Relation to Other Diseases
Participant Options for PPR Control
3.6.3. Key Informant Interviews
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | No. of Animals Sampled | No. of Positive Samples | Apparent Prevalence (95% CI) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Location | <0.001 a | |||
Lobalangit | 109 | 51 | 46.8 (37.2–56.6) | |
Karenga Town Council | 108 | 31 | 28.7 (20.4–38.2) | |
Kapedo | 82 | 72 | 87.8 (78.7–94) | |
Kawalakol | 91 | 67 | 73.6 (63.3–82.3) | |
Sangar | 81 | 51 | 63.0 (51.5–73.4) | |
Lokori | 116 | 36 | 31.0 (22.8–40.3) | |
Karenga sub-county | 97 | 26 | 26.8 (18.3–36.8) | |
Animal species | 0.003 a | |||
Caprine (goats) | 569 | 249 | 43.8 (39.6–48.0) | |
Ovine (sheep) | 115 | 85 | 73.9 (64.9–81.7) | |
Sex | <0.001 a | |||
Male | 133 | 36 | 31.9 (19.7–35.5) | |
Female | 551 | 298 | 54.1 (49.8–58.3) | |
Age | <0.001 a | |||
Less than 1 year | 87 | 14 | 16.1 (9.1–25.5) | |
1–2 years | 174 | 43 | 24.7 (18.5–31.8) | |
More than 2 years | 423 | 277 | 65.5 (60.7–70.0) | |
Herd size | <0.001 a | |||
Small (less than 50) | 13 | 7 | 53.9 (25.1–80.8) | |
Medium (50–100) | 287 | 112 | 39.0 (33.3–44.9) | |
Large (>100) | 384 | 215 | 56.0 (50.9–61.0) | |
Herd structure | <0.001 a | |||
Goats only | 350 | 131 | 37.4 (32.3–42.7) | |
Mixed, sheep/goats | 334 | 203 | 68.9 (55.3–66.1) | |
Production system | 0.45 | |||
Settled b | 242 | 121 | 50.0 (43.5–56.5) | |
Transhumant | 442 | 213 | 48.2 (43.4–53.0) |
Variable | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Location | |||
Karenga sub-county | Ref | ||
Lobalangit | 2.1 | 1.1–4 | 0.03 |
Karenga Town Council | 1.1 | 0.6–2.1 | 0.83 |
Kapedo | 14.5 | 6.2–36.8 | <0.001 |
Kawalakol | 6.0 | 2.9–13 | <0.001 |
Sangar | 4.0 | 1.9–8.6 | <0.001 |
Lokori | 0.7 | 0.4–1.3 | 0.26 |
Animal species | |||
Caprine (goats) | Ref | ||
Ovine (sheep) | 1.7 | 0.9–2.9 | 0.08 |
Age | |||
Less than 1 year | Ref | ||
1 to 2 years | 1.6 | 0.8–3.4 | 0.22 |
More than 2 years | 11.1 | 5.8–22.5 | <0.001 |
9 | Local Name | No. of Groups | Minimum Score | Maximum Score | Median Score | Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CCPP | Loukoi | 22 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 1 |
Anaplasmosis | Lopid | 20 | 1 | 5 | 3.5 | 2 |
PPR | Loleo/Louruton | 19 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 3 |
Trypanosomiasis | Ediit | 12 | 0 | 5 | 3 | 3 |
Helminthosis | Ngikur | 16 | 0 | 5 | 2.5 | 5 |
Mange | Emitina/Angaru | 20 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 6 |
Orf | Ngiborok/Ngitubukae | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 6 |
Pink eye | Edeke angakonyen | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
Heartwater | Lokou | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0.5 | 9 |
Footrot | Ejota | 15 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 10 |
Goat pox | Etom | 4 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 10 |
Median Scores for Each Disease | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CCPP | Anap | PPR | Tryps | Helm | Mange | Others | |
Relative morbidity | 18 (5, 30) | 12 (5, 30) | 14 (4, 27) | 10 (6, 23) | 11 (6, 20) | 8 (2, 20) | 7 (2, 19) |
Relative mortality | 16 (4, 24) | 8 (4, 24) | 9 (4, 27) | 5 (3, 16) | 7 (4, 18) | 3 (2, 12) | 2 (0, 11) |
Case fatality rate | 77 (29, 100) | 77 (40, 100) | 78 (56, 100) | 65 (29, 100) | 64 (39, 100) | 67 (23, 100) | 38 (0, 80) |
Impact Indicator | Median, Minimum and Maximum Impact Scores for Diseases | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CCPP | Anap. | PPR | Tryps. | Helm. | Mange | Others | |
High treatment cost (W = 0.75 ***) | 6.5 (3, 12) | 5 (2, 8) | 4 (2, 10) | 5.5 (2, 12) | 1 (1, 3) | 2 (1, 4) | 1.5 (1, 3) |
High mortality rate (W = 0.87 ***) | 5.5 (3, 10) | 3 (1, 5) | 4 (2, 6) | 1 (0, 7) | 1 (0, 3) | 1 (0, 2) | 2 (0, 3) |
Low marketability (W = 0.62 ***) | 4 (1, 5) | 1 (0, 3) | 2.5 (1, 8) | 2 (1, 4) | 1 (0, 3) | 2 (1, 4) | 1 (0, 2) |
Low carcass quality (W = 0.63 ***) | 2 (1, 4) | 0 (0, 2) | 0 (0, 1) | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 3) | 0 (0, 2) | 0.5 (0, 2) |
Reduced milk yield (W = 0.38 ***) | 1 (0, 3) | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 4) | 0 (0, 2) | 0 (0, 1) | 0 (0, 1) |
Increased conflicts (W = 0.71 ***) | 2 (1, 3) | 0 (0, 1) | 2 (0, 4) | 0 (0, 1) | 1 (0, 3) | 1 (0, 2) | 0 (0, 2) |
Animals not suitable for paying bride price (W = 0.43 ***) | 2 (1, 5) | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 4) | 1 (0, 3) | 1 (0, 3) | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 1) |
Lowered status in the community (W = 0.73 ***) | 2.5 (1, 6) | 1 (0, 3) | 1 (0, 4) | 0 (0, 2) | 0 (0, 1) | 0 (0, 1) | 0.5 (0, 3) |
Low reproduction (W = 0.63 ***) | 1 (0, 1) | 0 (0, 2) | 1 (1, 4) | 1 (1, 3) | 0 (0, 1) | 0 (0, 0) | 1 (0, 3) |
Animals not suitable for rituals (W = 0.36 ***) | 1 (0, 2) | 0 (0, 2) | 0.5 (0, 1) | 1 (0, 1) | 1 (0, 2) | 1 (0, 2) | 0 (0, 1) |
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Akwongo, C.J.; Quan, M.; Byaruhanga, C. Prevalence, Risk Factors for Exposure, and Socio-Economic Impact of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Karenga District, Karamoja Region, Uganda. Pathogens 2022, 11, 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010054
Akwongo CJ, Quan M, Byaruhanga C. Prevalence, Risk Factors for Exposure, and Socio-Economic Impact of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Karenga District, Karamoja Region, Uganda. Pathogens. 2022; 11(1):54. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010054
Chicago/Turabian StyleAkwongo, Claire Julie, Melvyn Quan, and Charles Byaruhanga. 2022. "Prevalence, Risk Factors for Exposure, and Socio-Economic Impact of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Karenga District, Karamoja Region, Uganda" Pathogens 11, no. 1: 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010054
APA StyleAkwongo, C. J., Quan, M., & Byaruhanga, C. (2022). Prevalence, Risk Factors for Exposure, and Socio-Economic Impact of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Karenga District, Karamoja Region, Uganda. Pathogens, 11(1), 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010054