Epidemiology and Laboratory Diagnostics of Dengue, Yellow Fever, Zika, and Chikungunya Virus Infections in Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Distribution of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in Africa
3. DENV Infections
4. Yellow Fever
5. Zika Virus Infections
6. Chikungunya Fever
7. Laboratory Diagnosis of Arboviral Infections in Africa
7.1. Diagnostic Challenges for Arboviral Infections
7.2. Diagnosis of Acute and Previous Infection with Arboviruses
7.3. Laboratory Testing during Arboviral Disease Outbreaks
8. Discussion
8.1. Challenges and Chances
8.2. Future Perspective for Epidemiological Monitoring
8.3. Priorities
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Virus | Country | Years | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Dengue fever | Sudan | 2004, 2015 | [42,43] |
Kenya | 2011, 2013, 2014, 2017 | [44,45,46] | |
Burkina Faso | 2016, 2017 | [47,48] | |
Mozambique | 2014 | [49] | |
Angola | 2013 | [50,51] | |
Tanzania | 2014, 2018–2019 | [52,53,54] | |
Gabon | 2007, 2010 | [55] | |
Senegal | 2009, 2017, 2018–2020 | [56,57,58] | |
Cote d’Ivoire | 2017, 2019 | [54,59] | |
Seychelles | 2015, 2020 | [15,58] | |
Benin | 2019 | [54] | |
Ethiopia | 2018, 2019 | [15] | |
Mauritius | 2019 | [60] | |
Kenya | 2018–2019, 2021 | [15,61] | |
Mauretania | 2018 | [58] | |
Mali | 2019–2020 | [15] | |
Yellow fever | Nigeria | 2018, 2020, 2021 | [54,62,63,64] |
Sudan | 2011, 2012, 2018 | [65,66,67,68] | |
Côte d’Ivoire | 2001–2003, 2006, 2010, 2011, 2019 | [54,69,70,71] | |
Senegal | 2020 | [72] | |
Guinea | 2000–2001, 2008, 2009 | [73,74,75] | |
Liberia | 2004 | [76] | |
Cameroon | 2017-2021 | [77] | |
Ghana | 2012 | [78] | |
Sierra Leone | 2011 | [79] | |
Republic of South Sudan | 2003 | [80] | |
Togo | 2006 | [81] | |
Central African Republic | 2009 | [82] | |
Uganda | 2010, 2011, 2016, 2019 | [54,83,84] | |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 2015–2016 | [85,86,87] | |
Ethiopia | 2013 | [88] | |
Angola | 2015–2016 | [87] | |
Zika | Angola | 2017 | [89] |
Cabo Verde Islands | 2015, 2016 | [90,91] | |
Chikungunya | Kenya | 2004, 2016, 2018 | [92,93,94,95] |
Gabon | 2007, 2010 | [96,97] | |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 2011, 2019–2020 | [95,98,99,100] | |
Cameroon | 2006 | [101,102] | |
Senegal | 2009–2010, 2015 | [95,103] | |
Sudan | 2005, 2018 | [66,95,104] | |
Ethiopia | 2019 | [105] | |
Sierra Leone | 2012 | [106] |
Country and Region | Participants | Year | Result | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mozambique | 152 adults, 107 children | 1957 | 4% of sera neutralized ZIKV | [124] |
Senegal | 1990 | ZIKV isolated from patient and IgM antibody were also detected | [125] | |
211 adults and children | 2011–2012 | 14 positive blood samples, 22.7% IgG-positive, and 13.7% neutralized ZIKV | [126] | |
284 adults and children | 2007 | 21.9% Zika IgG-positive, 13.4% neutralized ZIKV | [126] | |
Guinea-Bissau | 15 infants, 15 mothers | 2016 | 14 samples were IgG-positive, 93% neutralized ZIKV | [127] |
Burkina Faso | 1963–1964 | IgG antibodies were detected | [126] | |
Mali | 1964–1967 | Antibodies detected in human blood samples | [128] | |
291 participants | 2007 | 0.3% of sera neutralized ZIKV | [126] | |
1430 healthy volunteers | 2013–2016 | 11.98% were IgG-positive ZIKV | [128] | |
Benin | 1967 | Antibodies in human blood samples | [129] | |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 978 samples | 2013–2014 | 34 (3.5%) reacted with ZIKV in ELISA and one serum (3.2%) neutralized ZIKV | [130] |
Central African Republic | 1961 | Antibodies detected in human blood samples | [129] | |
Nigeria | 2 adults, 1 child | 1954 | ZIKV was isolated | [131] |
children under 16 years old | 1951 | 44% of 97 had neutralizing antibodies | [132] | |
1971–1975 | ZIKV isolated from 2 cases, 31% ZIKV IgG-positive, 40% of sera neutralized ZIKV | [133,134] | ||
Cape Verde | 7580 cases adults, newborn children | 2015–2016 | IgM was detected in 15 out of 64 sera; 2 samples were PCR-positive | [91] |
Uganda | Adults, children | 1952 | ZIKV antibodies were detected and ZIKV was isolated | [123] |
182 adults, 63 children | 1967 | 5 samples were positive for ZIKV antibody by hemagglutination inhibition test | [135] | |
Tanzania | 1952 | Serological evidence of ZIKV | [136] | |
Ethiopia | 3690 participants | 1960 | ZIKV antibodies were detected | [137] |
Kenya | Serological evidence of ZIKV | [138] | ||
745 samples | 2013 | Thirty-four (4.6%) were positive by MAC ELISA and 5 sera had neutralizing antibodies | [139] | |
327 plasma samples | 2016 | Two samples had neutralizing antibodies | [140] | |
Somalia | 1966–1967 | Antibodies detected in human blood samples | [141] | |
Sudan | 845 participants | 2012 | 530 or 62.7% IgG-positive by ELISA, one sample had neutralizing antibodies | [142] |
Gabon | 4312 human sera | 2007 | 5 samples RNA-positive | [143] |
1967–1980 | Serological evidence of ZIKV, 14.7% positive | [144] | ||
Cameroon | 102 febrile patients | 11.4% of the tested sera reacted monotypically with ZIKV | [145] | |
Angola | 54 samples, 76 infants, 24 mothers, 685 participants | 2016/2017 | 4 samples RNA-positive | [89] |
Egypt | 189 human sera | 1954 | 1 serum sample neutralized ZIKV | [146] |
Morocco | 1968–1969 | Antibodies to ZIKV found in people and birds | [129] |
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Adam, A.; Jassoy, C. Epidemiology and Laboratory Diagnostics of Dengue, Yellow Fever, Zika, and Chikungunya Virus Infections in Africa. Pathogens 2021, 10, 1324. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101324
Adam A, Jassoy C. Epidemiology and Laboratory Diagnostics of Dengue, Yellow Fever, Zika, and Chikungunya Virus Infections in Africa. Pathogens. 2021; 10(10):1324. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101324
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdam, Awadalkareem, and Christian Jassoy. 2021. "Epidemiology and Laboratory Diagnostics of Dengue, Yellow Fever, Zika, and Chikungunya Virus Infections in Africa" Pathogens 10, no. 10: 1324. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101324
APA StyleAdam, A., & Jassoy, C. (2021). Epidemiology and Laboratory Diagnostics of Dengue, Yellow Fever, Zika, and Chikungunya Virus Infections in Africa. Pathogens, 10(10), 1324. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101324