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8 November 2025

A Decentralized Framework Integrating BIM 5D and Blockchain for Transparent Payment Automation in Construction

,
and
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
2
Department of Architectural Engineering, Catholic Kwandong University, Gangneung 25601, Republic of Korea
3
School of Architecture and Building Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06975, Republic of Korea
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Buildings2025, 15(22), 4029;https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15224029 
(registering DOI)
This article belongs to the Special Issue A Digital Innovation Framework for Construction Management and Built Environment
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Abstract

The construction industry faces significant payment processing challenges characterized by delays, disputes, and cash flow constraints affecting contractors. Traditional systems rely on fragmented, paper-based processes lacking transparency and real-time integration between project progress and financial transactions. This paper proposes a decentralized application that integrates BIM 5D capabilities with Solana blockchain technology for automated construction payment processing, called DB5D. The framework consists of several components: a web-based 3D viewer utilizing Autodesk Forge for BIM visualization, construction schedule integration from planning software, Solana blockchain programs using Program-Derived Address (PDA) and Cross-Program Invocation (CPI) for secure payment processing, and decentralized document management through InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) with Content Addressable Archives (CAR) compression. The system enables direct linkage between measurable project progress and automated payments by allowing stakeholders to extract quantities from BIM models, record construction task completion with supporting documentation, and trigger blockchain-based token transfers upon client approval. Comprehensive validation involving construction industry professionals confirms the framework’s practical viability. It demonstrates significant improvements in payment transparency, administrative efficiency, and scalability compared to existing blockchain implementations, while enabling economically feasible micro-payments throughout project lifecycles.

1. Introduction

The construction industry, characterized by its multifaceted and dynamic nature, has long confronted challenges in managing efficient payment processes []. Traditional payment systems are characterized by extensive delays and contentious disputes, with late payment and non-payment issues contributing to significant operational inefficiencies across the sector []. These protracted timelines create severe cash flow constraints for contractors and subcontractors, particularly affecting smaller firms with limited working capital reserves [,]. The fundamental inefficiencies originate from the industry’s complex multi-stakeholder ecosystem, wherein owners, general contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers must coordinate through fragmented, paper-based administrative processes that lack transparency and standardized data exchange protocols [,]. Moreover, these challenges are systematically compounded by manual verification processes inherent in progress payment administration, which rely on subjective assessments by project stakeholders and remain susceptible to human error and interpretive disagreements []. The absence of real-time integration between project progress monitoring systems and financial transaction processing creates persistent information asymmetries that undermine trust relationships among project participants [].
Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology, particularly fifth-dimensional (5D) BIM implementations that integrate cost data with three-dimensional spatial models and temporal scheduling information [,], has demonstrated significant potential in construction project management [,,]. The 5D BIM can establish direct linkages between physical project progress and financial parameters, creating automated payment processing opportunities based on measurable completion milestones. For instance, advanced BIM-based payment systems can automatically calculate payment amounts when structural elements such as steel columns, beams, and concrete foundations reach predetermined completion percentages, extract precise quantities for concrete pours or steel installations directly from detailed 3D models containing thousands of individual building objects, and generate integrated cost and schedule data that enables real-time financial decision-making throughout project lifecycles [,]. Nonetheless, empirical analysis reveals inherent limitations in applying 5D BIM technology that hamper its effectiveness in contexts of payment automation. These include (1) functioning as standalone planning tools without integration capabilities for real-time payment processing systems []; (2) lacking secure transaction mechanisms necessary for financial operations []; and (3) offering no inherent contractual compliance features essential for automated payment approval [].
Blockchain technology, distinguished by its capacity to ensure data integrity, security, and transparency, has gained traction as a transformative tool in various industries, including construction []. Its inherent attributes of immutability and consensus mechanisms provide a robust platform for enhancing trust and accountability among all project stakeholders [,]. Previous research has extensively explored the benefits of blockchain in construction, mainly focusing on its potential to automate and secure payment processes [,]. Studies have demonstrated how blockchain can reduce payment disputes and enhance transaction transparency, primarily through smart contracts. However, despite promising theoretical frameworks and proof-of-concept implementations, existing blockchain-based construction payment systems exhibit fundamental scalability and integration limitations [,]. Previous blockchain, BIM payment frameworks have predominantly been implemented on first-generation platforms such as Ethereum, which suffer from inherent performance and cost limitations. These systems typically handle only around 15 transactions per second while incurring substantial gas fees, making them unsuitable for high-frequency, low-value payments that characterize construction progress workflows. As a result, frequent micro-transactions throughout project lifecycles become economically unviable, restricting their real-world scalability [,]. Additionally, these systems demonstrate inadequate integration capabilities with existing construction management workflows, particularly the inability to establish seamless connectivity between project data sources and blockchain-based payment processing mechanisms, resulting in persistent data silos and manual intervention requirements that fundamentally undermine the intended automation benefits [,].
Given these considerations, this paper aims to propose a decentralized framework that seamlessly combines BIM 5D project management features with blockchain-based payment automation to improve transparency, decrease administrative processing time, and reduce payment-related disputes in construction projects environments. (1) It introduces an architecture that integrates BIM-based cost and schedule models with a high-throughput blockchain through Cross-Program Invocation (CPI), enabling scalable payment transactions that overcome synchronization failures common in earlier Ethereum-based frameworks. (2) It implements a Program-Derived Address (PDA) escrow mechanism to ensure deterministic and secure control over stakeholder payment flows, minimizing the risk of manual errors and fraudulent fund release. (3) It proposes a Content Addressable Archive (CAR)-compressed IPFS document management system, which significantly reduces blockchain storage costs while maintaining immutability and transparency of construction documents. (4) It provides a comprehensive validation study demonstrating practical feasibility, user satisfaction, and the capacity to facilitate economically viable micro-payments throughout project lifecycles.
The paper is structured as follows: following this introduction, Section 2 provides a detailed literature review, exploring the current state of construction payment processes, the role of BIM in construction, and the potential of blockchain technology. Section 3 presents the methodology adopted for developing the integrative framework. Section 4 discusses the proposed framework, elaborating on its components, functioning, and potential benefits. Section 5 presents a case study to demonstrate the practical application and efficacy of the framework. Section 6 discusses the study’s implications for practitioners and researchers, and Section 7 concludes the paper with a summary of the findings, limitations of the study, and directions for future research.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Current State of Construction Payment

The construction industry, characterized by a complex network of stakeholders, is fraught with challenges in its payment processes, mainly due to the intricate web of contractual relationships and financial transactions. In this industry, architects, engineers, contractors, subcontractors, suppliers, and project owners interact in a multifaceted ecosystem, each with distinct roles and responsibilities, leading to a convoluted system of contractual commitments []. The evolution of construction payment systems, as illustrated in Figure 1, demonstrates a progressive trajectory from manual to semi-automatic approaches, with the industry currently transitioning toward fully automated solutions to address persistent inefficiencies in financial transaction processing.
Figure 1. Trend of construction payment.
The manual payment era, representing the foundational phase of construction financial management, was characterized entirely by paper-based processes involving physical documentation, manual verification, and in-person approvals. Traditional payment mechanisms during this period typically involved multi-tiered approval processes requiring extensive documentation verification, manual progress assessments, and sequential stakeholder approvals, creating inherent susceptibility to significant delays []. The hierarchical nature of construction contracting further amplified these complexities, as prime contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers operated within cascading payment structures that created dependencies and potential bottlenecks throughout the payment chain []. The transition to semi-automatic payment systems marked a pivotal advancement in construction payment processing by introducing computerized systems for data storage and basic computational capabilities. This evolutionary phase represented the industry’s first significant departure from purely manual processes, enabling the storage of vast amounts of payment data in digital format and facilitating improved information retrieval and management compared to paper-based methods []. Implementing electronic spreadsheets and database software allowed for more efficient calculations and enhanced data handling capabilities, significantly reducing the time required for payment processing compared to manual methods. However, despite these technological advances, semi-automatic systems continued to require substantial manual input and verification, with human intervention remaining necessary for data entry, payment status updates, and validation of work progress against payment milestones.
The progression toward full automation, as indicated in Figure 1, represents the logical next evolutionary phase in construction payment systems. This phase necessitates the integration of advanced technologies capable of providing real-time progress verification, automated compliance checking, and seamless transaction processing. This transition requires addressing the fundamental disconnect between project progress monitoring and financial transaction processing that characterizes current systems. The fragmentation of existing semi-automatic approaches underscores the critical need for integrated solutions to bridge this gap and provide the transparency, efficiency, and reliability demanded by contemporary construction project stakeholders.

2.2. BIM 5D Technology

The construction industry has experienced a substantial digital transformation, with BIM at the forefront [,]. BIM extends beyond merely a three-dimensional depiction of building structures; it constitutes a comprehensive process that facilitates creating and managing digital representations of the physical and functional characteristics of locations [,]. BIM 5D, which predominantly integrates cost with the traditional three-dimensional model and time (4D), has become an essential tool for improving project management, including cost estimations and financial monitoring. Applying 5D BIM in construction projects enables a more detailed, dynamic, and comprehensive approach to overseeing physical and economic aspects from the initial phases. This integration ensures that cost estimations and management are intricately linked with the overall design and development process of a project, resulting in more accurate and efficient financial planning [,]. Using integrated software platforms, Kamel et al. [] demonstrated that 5D BIM can model building geometry and visualize project progress with payment status, enabling automated payment processing based on measurable completion milestones. Vigneault et al. [] compiled eighteen software and web-based solutions, assessing them across five key areas of construction cost practices. Their review emphasized that 5D BIM helps improve estimation accuracy, monitoring, and enhances quality and efficiency in managing life-cycle costs. Importantly, the study identified gaps in interoperability, standardization, and practical adoption strategies, highlighting that integrating 5D BIM requires alignment with industry workflows and stakeholder needs.

2.3. Blockchain Technology

Blockchain technology has significantly permeated various domains of the construction industry, emerging as a revolutionary tool that promises enhanced efficiency, transparency, and security [,,]. Its decentralized ledger system offers a robust framework for managing diverse aspects of construction projects, ranging from supply chain management to contract administration [,,]. The technology’s inherent features, such as information traceability and creating a single source of truth, are particularly beneficial in construction, where multiple stakeholders collaborate on complex projects [,]. Recent studies have demonstrated blockchain’s transformative potential in construction payment systems, for instance, Hamledari et al. [] developed groundbreaking frameworks combining blockchain-enabled smart contracts with robotic reality capture technologies for automated payment processing. Their approach demonstrated how objective progress verification could trigger smart contract execution, eliminating traditional payment delays and reducing disputes between project stakeholders.
Integrating blockchain with BIM has emerged as a promising approach for construction payment automation, with several researchers exploring innovative frameworks that optimize project management processes [,,,]. As listed in Table 1, Sonmez et al. [] proposed a BIM-integrated smart contract framework that leveraged 5D BIM capabilities to automatically extract progress data and trigger payment execution based on predetermined milestones. Similarly, Wu et al. [] explored permissioned blockchain integration with IoT-BIM platforms for off-site production management, highlighting blockchain’s potential to enhance data integrity and security in BIM-enabled construction workflows. Elghaish et al. [] developed an integrated project delivery framework utilizing blockchain technology to create automated financial systems, demonstrating how blockchain integration could enhance BIM-based project management through secure, transparent financial transaction processing.
Table 1. Summary of existing BIM-blockchain payment frameworks.
Despite promising theoretical frameworks and proof-of-concept implementations, existing blockchain-based construction payment systems exhibit fundamental limitations that constrain practical adoption [,]. Most existing studies rely on first-generation platforms such as Ethereum, which suffer from low transaction throughput (approximately 15 transactions per second) and high gas fees. These make continuous micro-payments economically unsustainable for construction projects that involve numerous low-value transactions []. Additionally, these systems demonstrate inadequate integration capabilities with existing construction management workflows, particularly the inability to establish seamless connectivity between project data sources and blockchain-based payment processing mechanisms, resulting in persistent data silos and manual intervention requirements [].

3. Framework

3.1. Dapp BIM-5D Framework

The Dapp BIM-5D (DB5D) framework is a web-based decentralized application (DApp) designed to facilitate construction management tasks such as planning and payment. The proposed framework consists of several modules, as depicted in Figure 2. The framework is compatible with BIM file formats such as Revit, IFC, DWF, and others. The DB5D framework incorporates a 3D viewer for visual representation and a Gantt chart displaying the construction schedule derived from planning software. The framework employs a database to store user data and construction schedule data, and decentralized cloud storage for documentation. The storage module is capable of integrating with the document management module to store different construction documents, including shop drawings, construction records, and certifications. The blockchain network, program, and program-derived address (PDA) enable the secure storage of payment data and the generation of funding, thereby facilitating the integration of the framework with a fungible token. The components of the proposed framework are outlined in the subsequent sections.
Figure 2. (A) Conceptual of DB5D framework, (B) Detail of DB5D framework.

3.2. BIM and Construction Schedule Data

Recently, the utilization of 3D models in web browsers has gained popularity due to its ability to facilitate efficient collaboration among stakeholders. This study leverages the JavaScript library Autodesk Forge [] to generate 3D graphics and animations within web browsers. It facilitates the integration of a framework with WebGL, which is a graphics application programming interface (API) that enables the hardware-accelerated rendering of 3D graphics in web browsers. WebGL is frequently employed for the creation of games, virtual and augmented reality experiences, data visualization, and other interactive applications.
The framework employs the construction schedule data extracted from widely used planning software like Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Project, and Primavera P6. The framework includes a module that converts the construction schedule file into JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) data and stores it in a database for convenient retrieval. This centralizes the data and eliminates the need for separate software to modify it, thus avoiding conflicts with file versions. In addition, by integrating data from the BIM model and the construction schedule, the prototype can effectively utilize the capabilities of the BIM 5D tool. This implies that the 3D model will align with the scheduled tasks in the Gantt chart. The BIM model provides 3D element information that allows stakeholders to extract quantities from the model.

3.3. Blockchain, Program and Program-Derived Address

Due to the swift advancement of blockchain technology, multiple blockchains have arisen with the aim of improving the scalability and throughput of the current blockchains. Solana [] is a blockchain platform that has made substantial advancements in scalability and performance, particularly in terms of low fees. Solana is specifically engineered to efficiently process a high volume of transactions per second. It accomplishes this by utilizing a distinctive consensus mechanism known as Proof of History (PoH) and an extensively optimized network stack. PoH is a recently developed consensus mechanism that emerged in the Blockchain ecosystem. Its purpose is to overcome the scalability and performance constraints inherent in conventional consensus mechanisms such as Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS). PoH leverages a cryptographic Verifiable Delay Function (VDF) to produce a timestamp for every block within the Blockchain. The VDF is designed to be delay-hard and memory-hard, making it difficult for attackers to manipulate the timestamps. The VDF generates a timestamp that is subsequently integrated into every block within the Blockchain, ensuring a verifiable and immutable record of the chronological sequence of transactions. PoH ensures rapid finality, indicating that once a block is appended to the Blockchain, it is deemed permanent and cannot be reversed.
Solana employs programs, also referred to as smart contracts in other protocols, as the fundamental basis for on-chain operations. Solana utilizes accounts to store state. They are a fundamental component for the development of the Solana. Data accounts are a type of account used for storing data. They can be categorized into two types: system owned accounts and PDA accounts. A PDA is a specific type of account on the Solana blockchain that is owned and associated with a program rather than an individual user or account. PDA enables the creation of distinct data connections, the management of escrow balances, and the execution of various other trustless applications. PDAs, unlike traditional keypairs, without corresponding private keys. PDA are created by applying a sha256 hash function to the seeds and program ID in order to find an address that should not lie on the ed25519 elliptic curve. However, there is an approximate 50% probability of obtaining a valid public key lying on the elliptic curve Thus, it is necessary to introduce a modification to slightly modify the input, referred to as “bump”. The “bump” refers to a specific distance from the curve and is utilized to deterministically locate PDA, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. PDA produced through the elliptic curve.

3.4. Document Management and Interplanetary File System

Document management is a crucial component within a Common Data Environment (CDE). The framework facilitates the storage of various documents related to a project’s design and construction processes, including project contracts, estimates, reports, material specifications, and other relevant information. It enables all stakeholders to access and collaborate within a shared workspace, thereby minimizing communication and documentation conflicts. The framework utilizes the capabilities of the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) to enhance the method of storing documents with trustworthiness and transparency. IPFS is a collection of modular, distributed protocols that enable the addressing, routing, and transfer of content-addressed data within a decentralized file system. IPFS implements Content Identifier (CID) to manage content-addressed data. A content identifier, also known as a CID, is a specific label utilized to indicate and reference material within the IPFS. Although it does not specify the location of the content, it creates a unique identifier based on the content itself. CID have a short length, irrespective of the magnitude of their underlying content. For instance, the stakeholder uploads the same content to a different IPFS node with the same settings will generate the same CID.

4. Prototype Development

This section describes the implementation of the DB5D prototype based on the methodology outlined above. The DB5D prototype is a web application that helps stakeholders easily use and access. The prototype combines a BIM model and a Gantt chart in a web browser to utilize the power of BIM 5D. The stakeholder can take off quantities from the model, corresponding with the Gantt chart. In addition, the prototype leverages blockchain technology that helps the DB5D prototype become trustworthy, transparent, and secure. When a task on a construction site is complete, the stakeholder can record the construction task, quantities from the model, and the unit price from the contract for the payment in the blockchain.

4.1. BIM 5D Application

According to the framework, the DB5D prototype uses Autodesk Forge to create a 3D viewer capable of handling various BIM formats and preserving information from the BIM model. The DB5D adapted the decentralized application approach (Appendix A) to develop a prototype. This study employs a 16-story building model based on an actual project, built with Autodesk Revit 2024 software. Stakeholders use the BIM model and upload it to the prototype. The prototype then converts the BIM into a 3D web browser format. Using the BIM model, the prototype can effectively extract information about construction components to determine the quantities needed for payment. Additionally, the prototype uses a construction schedule file from Microsoft Project, which is converted into data and stored in a SQL database. For example, stakeholders can export schedule files from planning software and import them into the prototype. The prototype provides a mechanism for converting files into data and storing them in a database. After conversion, the prototype can display the data using a Gantt chart. This enables stakeholders to communicate and modify the schedule directly within the prototype, eliminating fragmented data. Each Gantt chart task includes a field linking it to the 3D viewer, showing quantities beyond that task. This allows stakeholders to review planning through a virtual model and manage quantities effectively. For instance, a stakeholder can select a date, and the 3D model will display elements completed, ongoing, or not started, along with their quantities. The BIM 5D workflow in the prototype is illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4. BIM 5D workflow.

4.2. Document Management

The prototype utilizes Filebase [] as a decentralized cloud storage solution. It offers expedient access to IPFS and is compatible with Amazon S3, a cloud storage service. Thus, it can utilize the API provided by the Amazon software development kit (SDK). Once the file is uploaded to IPFS, the prototype will be issued a CID, which will be stored in the blockchain. However, there are expenses associated with storing data in data accounts. The expenses referred to as rent are settled using lamports. Lamports represent fractional units of Solana’s native token (SOL) and serve as a means to facilitate microtransactions on the Solana blockchain. The rental fees are determined by the storage capacity of the account. The greater the quantity of data stored, the more expensive the rental fee becomes. The construction payment documentation typically contains various files, including construction records, drawings, and certifications. Storing individual CID in the blockchain is inefficient and leads to an increase in rental fees.
Consequently, the prototype utilizes a distinct format for IPFS, known as Content Addressable Archives (CAR) []. This format stores data as blocks, which are sequences of bytes. Each block is prefixed with a CID that is derived from the hash of the data. This format is compatible with IPFS. A compression module was developed using Node.js and Docker to facilitate the storage of documentation in a prototype (in Figure 5A,B). For instance, once tasks are completed on an actual construction site, the contractor can utilize DB5D to initiate a payment through blockchain technology. The contractor will upload all documents, specifically those that serve as documentation for payment. The compression module will then compress all the documents into a single car file. Using this car file, stakeholders can effortlessly retrieve and view it on the IPFS explorer (in Figure 5C).
Figure 5. (A) API for compression module; (B) script for CAR file compression; (C) file CAR in IPFS explorer.

5. Validation

To assess the effectiveness and usability of the proposed DB5D framework, a comprehensive evaluation methodology was designed, consisting of two primary stages: usability testing and effectiveness assessment, as illustrated in Figure 6. This dual-stage approach ensures both technical functionality and practical applicability are thoroughly evaluated through a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative metrics via Likert-scale surveys and qualitative feedback through structured user comments, aligning with established practices for evaluating construction technology prototypes.
Figure 6. DB5D evaluation scheme.
A total of 52 construction industry professionals and senior students participated in the validation study, representing diverse stakeholder perspectives in construction project management to ensure framework applicability across different roles and experience levels. As presented in Table 2, the sample includes experienced professionals comprising project managers, BIM managers, and MEP managers with 12–27 years of experience, representing 19.2% of participants. Mid-level practitioners, including site engineers and BIM engineers with 3–10 years of experience, represent 61.5% of participants, of which 25 out of 32 have more than 7 years of experience, and 7 out of 32 have between 3–7 years of experience. Senior construction students with 0.5–2 years of experience, representing 9.3% of participants.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics of users.
The validation scenario utilized a realistic 16-story building project model developed in Autodesk Revit, representing typical commercial construction complexity. The experimental procedure was structured as a systematic six-phase workflow mirroring real-world construction payment processes:
  • The participant creates a project and uploads a BIM model file to generate a 3D view and a construction schedule to generate a Gantt chart in the browser. In this prototype, the construction task and project metadata are recorded in an SQL database (in Figure 7A). For instance, the project manager creates a project and funding, and then the client will deposit tokens to fund as per the project contract. After the client finishes the deposit, the participant can upload the BIM and construction schedule.
    Figure 7. (A) Project manager creates a project and a fund; (B) The participant visualizes construction progress; (C) Extract quantities from the BIM model; (D) The Project manager submits payment to the client; (E) The Document is uploaded to IPFS; and (F) The Client reviews the payment data before approving to transfer the token.
  • The participant selects projects and construction schedules in those projects (in Figure 7B,C). Then, the participant visualizes construction progress via a Gantt chart and a BIM model in a web browser, which helps connect stakeholders. For instance, the participant modifies the task in the Gantt chart, which corresponds with the BIM model via object identifier (OID), and these changes are recorded in the database.
  • The prototype retrieves data from a BIM model to offer BIM 5D functionality to participants. In addition, the quantities will be utilized to track payment progress. For instance, the participant can select a task and check qualities via a quantities table (in Figure 7D).
  • When a task is completed, the project manager can proceed with the payment via prototype. For instance, the participant can submit the task to the client via blockchain data, which includes the number of tokens, completion time, and task name, for trust and transparency (in Figure 7E).
  • In addition, the prototype allows participants to upload document support, such as a construction report or inspection report, for the payment process. The document will be uploaded to IPFS as a folder via Filebase, and then the CID will be recorded to the blockchain. This helps make the document transparent, trustworthy, and secure without modification (in Figure 7E).
  • The client will review the submitted payment from the project manager. For instance, the client can visualize the BIM model, construction progress, quantities, and documents. After that, the client can approve the payment, and the prototype will transfer the token to the contractor’s wallet, which is recorded in the blockchain when creating a project (in Figure 7F).
The quantitative evaluation employed a structured survey using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Poor, 5 = Excellent) to assess six key performance dimensions based on established evaluation criteria from construction technology adoption frameworks [,,,,]. The results presented in Table 3 demonstrate consistently high user satisfaction across all the criteria evaluated. Usability and accessibility achieved a mean score of 4.89, indicating successful web-based interface design and intuitive navigation that addresses complexity barriers often associated with blockchain-based construction applications. BIM 5D effectiveness scored 4.69, validating the framework’s ability to effectively combine spatial modeling with cost and schedule data, thereby achieving the primary objective of enhancing BIM functionality through blockchain integration. The highest-rated aspect, transparency and trust (4.83), validates the blockchain implementation’s effectiveness in addressing traditional payment process challenges and confirms the framework’s core value proposition. Decentralized document management experience scored 4.73, indicating successful IPFS integration with construction workflows and effectively addressing document integrity concerns. At the same time, future application intent (4.85) demonstrates strong industry acceptance potential and practical relevance. Construction payment potential received a score of 4.82, confirming participants’ strong agreement regarding the framework’s significant potential for improving construction payment processes and validating the research’s practical value and industry applicability.
Table 3. Survey of the TIVR prototype and results.
Qualitative feedback from twenty-nine participants was systematically categorized, revealing several key themes illustrated in Figure 8. Participants frequently emphasized the seamless integration between BIM visualization and blockchain payment processing, reducing the complexity of managing multiple software platforms. Meanwhile, transparency improvements were consistently highlighted, particularly the ability to track payment status and access supporting documentation through immutable blockchain records. Despite underlying technical complexity, participants praised the framework’s user-friendly interface and straightforward workflow processes, indicating successful abstraction of complex operations behind intuitive interfaces. However, some implementation considerations regarding internet connectivity requirements and blockchain concept learning curves were raised.
Figure 8. Statistics of frequently mentioned categories in participants’ comments.

6. Discussion

The DB5D framework represents a significant advancement in construction payment automation by successfully integrating BIM 5D capabilities with advanced blockchain technology to address longstanding industry challenges. The framework’s utilization of Solana’s high-throughput, low-cost blockchain infrastructure overcomes the scalability limitations that have constrained previous blockchain implementations in construction, enabling economically viable micro-payments throughout project lifecycles. The validation results demonstrate consistently high user satisfaction across diverse stakeholder groups, with mean scores exceeding 4.69 on all evaluated criteria, indicating successful abstraction of complex blockchain operations behind intuitive user interfaces. The framework’s ability to link measurable project progress with automated payment processing addresses the traditional disconnect between physical construction activities and financial transaction systems, potentially improving cash flow stability for smaller contractors and subcontractors who have historically suffered from delayed payment processes.
From a technical perspective, the framework introduces several innovative architectural features that distinguish it from existing blockchain-based construction management systems. While previous studies by Hamledari [] and Sonmez et al. [] have explored blockchain integration with construction payment systems, these implementations primarily relied on first-generation blockchain platforms such as Ethereum, which impose significant scalability constraints and high transaction costs that render frequent micro-payments economically infeasible. In contrast, the DB5D framework leverages Solana’s advanced Proof of History consensus mechanism and high-throughput architecture to overcome these limitations, enabling cost-effective processing of numerous small-value transactions throughout construction project lifecycles. The dual-program architecture, utilizing CPI, also ensures atomic transactions that maintain data integrity while minimizing synchronization risks. Additionally, integrating Content Addressable Archives for document storage substantially reduces blockchain storage costs while maintaining security and immutability benefits, demonstrating how emerging technologies can be optimized for industry-specific requirements.
Despite promising validation results, several substantial limitations constrain broader applicability and warrant critical examination. The validation scope, one 16-story project with 52 geographically concentrated participants, may not capture sectoral diversity, cross-border contracting, or heterogeneous supply chains. The framework’s fundamental dependence on high-quality BIM model data and continuous internet connectivity assumes a level of digital maturity and infrastructure availability that remains inconsistent across the global construction industry, particularly among smaller firms and developing markets where these prerequisites are often absent. Using a public, high-throughput blockchain also introduces confidentiality risks: even with off-chain, encrypted Content Addressable Archives and on-chain hashes only, transaction timing and counterparty metadata can leak commercially sensitive information. Jurisdictional enforceability is another constraint: the prototype does not yet include jurisdiction-vetted contract annexes. A practical limitation concerns economic feasibility and responsibility for costs, which this study did not quantify. Adoption entails one-off onboarding costs (BIM-to-payment mapping, contract template development, staff training, security hardening), recurring operational costs (key management, pay-cycle support, incident handling, legal oversight), and infrastructure costs (document storage and pinning, monitoring, backups). Responsibility can follow different models, such as client-funded (for transparency and auditability), shared as part of general conditions, or allocated by work package with pass-through to subcontractors, each with distinct incentives and equity implications.

7. Conclusions

This study proposed the DB5D framework, a comprehensive decentralized application that integrates BIM 5D capabilities with advanced blockchain technology to address persistent payment processing challenges in the construction industry. The framework demonstrates a significant technological advancement by leveraging Solana’s high-throughput, low-cost blockchain infrastructure and innovative use of PDA and CPI, enabling economically viable micro-payments throughout project lifecycles while addressing fundamental scalability limitations of previous implementations. The validation results confirm the framework’s effectiveness in providing transparent, automated payment processing with high user satisfaction across diverse stakeholder groups, indicating strong potential for practical industry adoption. Future research should integrate objective performance metrics with existing Likert-scale evaluations to enhance the methodological rigor and validity of the assessment framework. Further investigation into extending system capabilities to accommodate for complex contractual structures, including multi-tier subcontracting and integrated project delivery models, is warranted. It should also incorporate legal compliance modules and contract templates aligned with national construction laws to enhance enforceability. The framework’s interoperability should also be extended by aligning blockchain transaction records and BIM data schemas with IFC and ISO 19650 standards. In addition, funding allocation models (client-funded, shared among parties, or pass-through to work packages) should be evaluated, complemented by a willingness-to-pay study of owners, general contractors, and subcontractors. In addition, exploring Internet of Things-enabled progress monitoring and advanced blockchain functionalities, such as zero-knowledge proofs [], may improve verification efficiency, automation, and data confidentiality in payment processing systems.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.C.P.; Methodology, H.C.P., and Q.L.B.; Validation, H.C.P.; Data curation, H.C.P.; Writing—original draft, H.C.P., and S.V.-T.T.; Writing—review & editing, H.C.P.; Visualization, Q.L.B., and S.V.-T.T.; Supervision, H.C.P., Project administration, H.C.P.; Funding acquisition, H.C.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research is funded by Ton Duc Thang University under grant number FOSTECT.2023.50.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A. Decentralized Application

As illustrated in Figure A1, the DB5D prototype establishes two programs, the fund program and the document program, which aid the prototype in controlling the construction fund, construction task, and document-related tasks. The fund program provides a method for clients to create a fund for a project and transfer tokens to contractors when they complete a task. The document program provides the prototype document management feature with trust, transparency, and security based on blockchain and decentralized cloud storage. The program’s workflow is illustrated below:
  • The fund program enables a client to allocate an initial number of tokens for a project, representing a contractual agreement. Following the initial deposit, the client has the ability to make additional deposits but is not permitted to withdraw funds without obtaining permission from other stakeholders. Furthermore, it exercises control over the approval and transfer of the token once the client has given their approval that the task has been completed. Besides that, the contractor can verify the number of tokens in the project fund.
  • The document program enables stakeholders to manage both tasks and documents. Once a task is finished on a construction site, the contractor initiates a payment via DApp. The tasks and documents will be recorded on the blockchain for payment purposes, allowing the client to verify the accuracy of this data. It facilitates the establishment of trust, transparency, and security for this information.
Buildings 15 04029 g0a1
Figure A1. The program’s workflow.
The proposed prototype establishes a decentralized mechanism to facilitate transparent interactions between clients and contractors through blockchain-based fund management and document verification. Within this framework, the client deposits tokens into a fund managed through a PDA), while the contractor verifies the client’s deposit and submits the relevant project documents to the IPFS. The resulting CID is stored within the PDA, serving as an immutable reference to the submitted data. This design ensures that funds are released only after the client verifies and confirms the authenticity of the document, thereby enhancing trust and accountability in the transaction process.
To achieve the features above, the prototype implement server with the framework Rocket [], user interface implement with ReactJs framework, and the program are written using Rust programming language and Anchor framework. The Program is compiled and deployed to the Solana blockchain through the command line (in Figure A2A). Following deployment and compilation, the prototype engages with the program through the utilization of an interface definition language (IDL) file. This file defines the program’s interface in a format that can be employed by other programs or DApps (in Figure A2B).
Besides that, the Document program uses system owned accounts, requiring user sign for transactions. The fund program consists of PDA account that can be used to sign on behalf of a program. Therefore, the prototype will provide a set of seeds includes a text and the public key of the user’s wallet to generate PDA (in Figure A2C). However, the prototype uses two separate programs: one for managing funds and another for managing documents. It means the prototype must initiate two transactions once the client completes the payment. For instance, when the client approves the payment, the prototype will initiate a transaction to fund program for transfer token to contractor. After the completion of this transaction, the prototype will initiate another transaction to modify the status of the task in the blockchain using the Document program. Thus, the prototype must perform two transactions consecutively. This can result in a synchronization issue when the second transaction fails and results in missing data. As a result, the prototype utilizes Cross-Program Invocation (CPI) which refers to the act of one program invoking a function in another program, as illustrated in Figure A1. The prototype is able to initiate a single transaction to interact with two programs (in Figure A2D).
Buildings 15 04029 g0a2
Figure A2. (A). Script to deploy program to Solana; (B) the IDL of fund program; (C) configuration for generating PDA; and (D) function in fund program calls function in document program via CPI.

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