An Overview of Highly Porous Titanium Processed via Metal Injection Molding in Combination with the Space Holder Method
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The MIM + SH Route Compared to Other Techniques
3. Critical MIM + SH Processing Parameters
3.1. Ti Powders
3.2. Space Holders (SH) Method for MIM
3.3. Binders and Debinding
3.4. Feedstock and Injection Molding
3.5. Sintering
4. Trends and Prospects
- -
- In patent JP2005281736, different fractions of TiH2, HDH titanium, and 60Al-40V pre-alloyed powders were mixed to manufacture Ti-6Al-4V components with low oxygen, low cost, and suitable mechanical properties. Good mechanical properties of YS = 910 MPa, UTS = 950 MPa, and El = 14% were obtained by mixing 25 wt% TiH2 and 75 wt% HDH powders.
- -
- A new binder system is presented in patent US7883662B2 for the control of oxygen and carbon contamination in MIM-Ti parts. Using a binder system containing naphthalene, polystyrene and stearic acid, the oxygen and carbon level in the final Ti-6Al-4V sintered parts presented very low levels of 0.197wt% and 0.05wt%, respectively, which complies with ASTM F2885 recommendations for MIM-Ti surgical tools.
- -
- Patent CN105382261 reports a novel technique to improve the dimensional accuracy of MIM-Ti parts. Titanium powders with different average particle sizes were mixed to produce the MIM feedstock and find the optimum blend for best dimensional stability. Using powders with average sizes of 46.8 µm, 34.5 µm, and 24.4 µm and ratios of 68:24:8 percent, a high dimensional precision of ±1%, uniform structure, low oxygen level of <0.25wt%, and high mechanical properties for high-density titanium parts were obtained.
- -
- Types, formats, sizes, and proportions of titanium powder;
- -
- Variables associated with the mixing and injection of titanium powders, binders, and space holders;
- -
- Shape, quantity, size, and material of space holders;
- -
- Material, quantity, combination, and extraction of binders; and
- -
- Time, temperature, atmosphere, and gas flow applied in the sintering;
5. Final Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Geetha, M.; Singh, A.K.; Asokamani, R.; Gogia, A.K. Ti based biomaterials, the ultimate choice for orthopaedic implants—A review. Prog. Mater. Sci. 2009, 54, 397–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Louis, G.P. Rapid Growth in the Elderly Population of the World. In Brain and Spine Surgery in the Elderly; Berhouma, M., Krolak-Salmon, P., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibson, L.J. The mechanical behaviour of cancellous bone. J. Biomech. 1985, 18, 317–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clarke, B. Normal bone anatomy and physiology. Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. CJASN 2008, 3 (Suppl. 3), 131–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Bayraktar, H.H.; Morgan, E.F.; Niebur, G.L.; Morris, G.E.; Wong, E.K.; Keaveny, T.M. Comparison of the elastic and yield properties of human femoral trabecular and cortical bone tissue. J. Biomech. 2004, 37, 27–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, D. The Williams Dictionary of Biomaterials; Liverpool University Press: Liverpool, UK, 1999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hsu, H.C.; Hsu, S.K.; Wua, S.C.; Wang, P.H.; Ho, W.F. Design and characterization of highly porous titanium foams with bioactive surface sintering in air. J. Alloys Compd. 2013, 575, 326–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garcia, M.D.; Hur, M.; Chen, J.J.; Bhatti, M.T. Cobalt toxic optic neuropathy and retinopathy: Case report and review of the literature. Am. J. Ophthalmol. Case Rep. 2020, 17, 100606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Manam, N.S.; Harun, W.S.W.; Shri, D.N.A.; Ghani, S.A.C.; Kurniawan, T.; Ismail, M.H.; Ibrahim, M.H.I. Study of corrosion in biocompatible metals for implants: A review. J. Alloys Compd. 2017, 701, 698–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, X.; Chu, P.; Ding, C. Surface modification of titanium, titanium alloys, and related materials for biomedical applications. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 2004, 47, 49–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Xiong, J.; Li, Y.; Wang, X.; Hodgson, P.; Wen, C. Mechanical properties and bioactive surface modification via alkali-heat treatment of a porous Ti–18Nb–4Sn alloy for biomedical applications. Acta Biomater. 2008, 4, 1963–1968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wapner, K.L. Implications of metallic corrosion in total knee arthroplasty. Clin. Orthop. Related Res. 1991, 271, 12–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nag, S.; Banerjee, R.; Fraser, H.L. Microstructural evolution and strengthening mechanisms in Ti–Nb–Zr–Ta, Ti–Mo–Zr–Fe and Ti–15Mo biocompatible alloys. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2005, 25, 357–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenbarth, E.; Velten, D.; Müller, M.; Thull, R.; Breme, J. Biocompatibility of β-stabilizing elements of titanium alloys. Biomaterials 2004, 25, 5705–5713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taddei, E.B.; Henriques, V.A.R.; Silva, C.R.M.; Cairo, C.A.A. Production of new titanium alloy for orthopedic implants. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2004, 24, 683–687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dehghan-manshadi, A.; St. John, D.H.; Dargusch, M.S.; Chen, Y.; Sun, J.F.; Qian, M. Metal injection moulding of non-spherical titanium powders: Processing, microstructure and mechanical properties. J. Manuf. Proces. 2018, 31, 416–423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, M.; Gupta, G.K.; Dasgupta, R.; Kumar, M.; Kumar, P. Titanium Foams Processed Through Powder Metallurgy Route Using Lubricant Acrawax as Space Holder Material. Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 2018, 71, 1933–1940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taniguchi, N.; Fujibayashi, S.; Takemoto, M.; Sasaki, K.; Otsuki, B.; Nakamura, T.; Matsushita, T.; Kokubo, T.; Matsuda, S. Effect of pore size on bone ingrowth into porous titanium implants fabricated by additive manufacturing: An in vivo experiment. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2016, 59, 690–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, J.P.; Habibovic, P.; Yuan, H.; van den Doel, M.; Wilson, C.E.; de Wijn, J.R.; van Blitterswijk, C.A.; de Groot, K. Biological performance in goats of a porous titanium alloy-biphasic calcium phosphate composite. Biomaterials 2007, 28, 4209–4218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, C.; Chen, H.; Zhu, X.; Xiao, Z.; Zhang, K.; Zhang, X. An improved polymeric sponge replication method for biomedical porous titanium scaffolds. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2017, 70, 1192–1199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hollister, S.J. Scaffold design and manufacturing: From concept to clinic. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 3330–3342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carrenõ-Morelli, E.; Rodríguez-Arbaizar, M.; Amherd, A.; Bidaux, J.E. Porous titanium processed by powder injection moulding of titanium hydride and space holders. Powder Metall. 2014, 57, 93–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zheng, J.P.; Chen, L.J.; Chen, D.Y.; Shao, C.S.; Yi, M.F.; Zhang, B. Effects of pore size and porosity of surface-modified porous titanium implants on bone tissue ingrowth. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China (Engl. Ed.) 2019, 29, 2534–2545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lascano, S.; Arévalo, C.; Montealegre-Melendez, I.; Muñoz, S.; Rodriguez-Ortiz, J.A.; Trueba, P.; Torres, Y. Porous titanium for biomedical applications: Evaluation of the conventional powder metallurgy frontier and space-holder technique. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cabezas-Villa, J.L.; Olmos, L.; Bouvard, D.; Lemus-Ruiz, J.; Jiménez, O. Processing and properties of highly porous Ti6Al4V mimicking human bones. J. Mater. Res. 2018, 33, 650–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.B.; Li, Y.C.; Hodgson, P.D.; Wen, C. The importance of particle size in porous titanium and nonporous counterparts for surface energy and its impact on apatite formation. Acta Biomater. 2009, 5, 2290–2302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Daudt, N.; Bram, M.; Barbosa, A.P.C.; Laptev, A.M.; Alves, C. Manufacturing of highly porous titanium by metal injection molding in combination with plasma treatment. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2017, 239, 202–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuncer, N.; Bram, M.; Laptev, A.; Beck, T.; Moser, A.; Buchkremer, H.P. Study of metal injection molding of highly porous titanium by physical modeling and direct experiments. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2014, 214, 1352–1360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Laptev, A.M.; Daudt, N.F.; Guillon, O.; Bram, M. Increased Shape Stability and Porosity of Highly Porous Injection-Molded Titanium Parts. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2015, 17, 1579–1587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shbeh, M.; Oner, E.; Al-Rubaye, A.; Goodall, R. Production and Digital Image Correlation Analysis of Titanium Foams with Different Pore Morphologies as a Bone-Substitute Material. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 2019, 1670837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Levy, G.N.; Schindel, R.; Kruth, J.P. Rapid manufacturing and rapid tooling with layer manufacturing (LM) technologies, state of the art and future perspectives. CIRP Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2003, 52, 589–609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dehghan-manshadi, A.; Bermingham, M.; Dargusch, M.; Stjohn, D.; Qian, M. Metal Injection Moulding of Titanium and Titanium alloys: Challenges and recent development. Powder Technol. 2017, 319, 289–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nor, N.M.; Muhamad, N.; Ihsan, A.M.; Jamaludin, K.R. Sintering parameter optimization of Ti-6Al-4V metal injection molding for highest strength using palm stearin binder. Procedia Eng. 2013, 68, 359–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hidalgo, A.A.; Ebel, T.; Limberg, W.; Pyczak, F. Influence of oxygen on the fatigue behaviour of Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy. Key Eng. Mater. 2016, 704, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Aguilar, C.; Aguirre, T.; Martínez, F.C.; de Barbieri, F.; San, F.M.; Salinas, V.; Alfonso, I. Improving the mechanical strength of ternary beta titanium alloy (Ti-Ta-Sn) foams, using a bimodal microstructure. Mater. Design. 2020, 195, 108945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baril, E.; Lefebvre, L.P.; Thomas, Y. Interstitial elements in titanium powder metallurgy: Sources and control. Powder Metall. 2011, 54, 183–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sidambe, A. Biocompatibility of Advanced Manufactured Titanium Implants—A Review. Materials 2014, 7, 8168–8188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Qian, M.; Xu, W.; Brandt, M.; Tang, H.P. Additive manufacturing and postprocessing of Ti-6Al-4V for superior mechanical properties. MRS Bull. 2016, 41, 775–784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dabrowski, B.; Swieszkowski, W.; Godlinski, D.; Kurzydlowski, K.J. Highly porous titanium scaffolds for orthopaedic applications. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater. 2010, 95B, 53–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dehghan-Manshadi, A.; Yu, P.; Dargusch, M.; StJohn, D.; Qian, M. Metal injection moulding of surgical tools, biomaterials and medical devices: A review. Powder Technol. 2020, 364, 189–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- German, R.M. Progress in titanium metal powder injection molding. Materials 2013, 6, 3641–3662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gülsoy, H.Ö.; Gülsoy, N.; Calişici, R. Particle morphology influence on mechanical and biocompatibility properties of injection molded Ti alloy powder. Bio-Med. Mater. Eng. 2014, 24, 1861–1873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torres, Y.; Pavón, J.J.; Rodríguez, J.A. Processing and characterization of porous titanium for implants by using NaCl as space holder. J. Mater. Processing Technol. 2012, 212, 1061–1069. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, C.; Cao, P.; Jones, M.I. Titanium powder sintering in a graphite furnace and mechanical properties of sintered parts. Metals 2017, 7, 67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Güden, M.; Çelik, E.; Hizal, A.; Altindiş, M.; Çetiner, S. Effects of compaction pressure and particle shape on the porosity and compression mechanical properties of sintered Ti6Al4V powder compacts for hard tissue implantation. J. Biomed. Mater. Res.-Part B Appl. BioMater. 2008, 85, 547–555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Thavanayagam, G.; Pickering, K.L.; Swan, J.E.; Cao, P. Analysis of rheological behaviour of titanium feedstocks formulated with a water-soluble binder system for powder injection moulding. Powder Technol. 2015, 269, 227–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCracken, C.G.; Barbis, D.P.; Deeter, R.C. Key characteristics of hydride-Dehydride titanium powder. Powder Metall. 2011, 54, 180–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, K.; Zou, L.; Shi, Q.; Hu, K.; Liu, X.; Duan, B. Effect of titanium hydride powder addition on microstructure and properties of titanium powder injection molding. Powder Technol. 2020, 367, 225–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peng, Q.; Yang, B.; Friedrich, B. Porous Titanium Parts Fabricated by Sintering of TiH2 and Ti Powder Mixtures. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2018, 27, 228–242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ivasishin, O.M.; Savvakin, D.G.; Gumenyak, M.M.; Bondarchuk, O.B. Role of surface contamination in titanium PM. Key Eng. Mater. 2012, 520, 121–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ebel, T. Metal injection molding (MIM) of titanium and titanium alloys. In Handbook of Metal Injection Molding, 2nd ed.; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2012; pp. 415–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, S.J.; Wu, Y.; Heaney, D.F.; Zou, X.; Gai, G.; German, R.M. Rheological and thermal debinding behaviors in titanium powder injection molding. Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 2009, 40, 215–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vert, R.; Pontone, R.; Dolbec, R.; Dionne, L.; Boulos, M.I. Induction plasma technology applied to powder manufacturing: Example of Titanium-based materials. Key Eng. Mater. 2016, 704, 282–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liang, Y.; Wu, Y. Methods to Prepare Spherical Titanium Powders and Investigation on Spheroidization of HDH Titanium Powders. In Proceedings of the 13th World Conference on Titanium, San Diego, CA, USA, 16–20 August 2015; pp. 139–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ASTM. ASTM Standard F67–00; Standard Specification for Unalloyed Titanium, for Surgical Implant Applications (UNS R50250, UNS R50400, UNS R50550, UNS R50700); ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- ASTM. ASTM standard E 1409–05; Standard Test Method for Determination of Oxygen and Nitrogen in Titanium and Titanium Alloys by the Inert Gas Fusion Technique; ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- ASTM. ASTM standard 817–08; Standard Specification for Powder Metallurgy (PM) Titanium Alloy Structural Components; ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Torres-Sanchez, C.; al Mushref, F.R.A.; Norrito, M.; Yendall, K.; Liu, Y.; Conway, P.P. The effect of pore size and porosity on mechanical properties and biological response of porous titanium scaffolds. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2017, 77, 219–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Xu, W.; Liu, Z.; Lu, X.; Tian, J.; Chen, G.; Liu, B.; Li, Z.; Qu, X.; Wen, C. Porous Ti-10Mo alloy fabricated by powder metallurgy for promoting bone regeneration. Sci. China Mater. 2019, 62, 1053–1064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thieme, M.; Wieters, K.P.; Bergner, F.; Scharnweber, D.; Worch, H.; Ndop, J.; Kim, T.J.; Grill, W. Titanium powder sintering for preparation of a porous functionally graded material destined for orthopaedic implants. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2001, 12, 225–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yu, P.; Stephani, G.; Luo, S.D.; Goehler, H.; Qian, M. Microwave-assisted fabrication of titanium hollow spheres with tailored shell structures for various potential applications. Mater. Lett. 2012, 86, 84–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oppenheimer, S.; Dunand, D.C. Solid-state foaming of Ti-6A1-4V by creep or superplastic expansion of argon-filled pores. Acta Mater. 2010, 58, 4387–4397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neirinck, B.; Mattheys, T.; Braem, A.; Fransaer, J.; van der Biest, O.; Vleugels, J. Preparation of titanium foams by slip casting of particle stabilized emulsions. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2009, 11, 633–636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rak, Z.S.; Walter, J. Porous titanium foil by tape casting technique. J. Mater. Processing Technol. 2006, 175, 358–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erk, K.A.; Dunand, D.C.; Shull, K.R. Titanium with controllable pore fractions by thermoreversible gelcasting of TiH2. Acta Mater. 2008, 56, 5147–5157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chino, Y.; Dunand, D.C. Directionally freeze-cast titanium foam with aligned, elongated pores. Acta Mater. 2008, 56, 105–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özbilen, S.; Liebert, D.; Beck, T.; Bram, M. Fatigue behavior of highly porous titanium produced by powder metallurgy with temporary space holders. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2016, 60, 446–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Engin, G.; Aydemir, B.; Gülsoy, H.Ö. Injection molding of micro-porous titanium alloy with space holder technique. Rare Met. 2011, 30, 565–571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Esen, Z.; Bor, Ş. Characterization of Ti–6Al–4V alloy foams synthesized by space holder technique. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2011, 528, 3200–3209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, C.; Mabuchi, M.; Yamada, Y.; Shimojima, K.; Chino, Y.; Asahina, T. Processing of biocompatible porous Ti and Mg. Scr. Mater. 2001, 45, 1147–1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mansourighasri, A.; Muhamad, N.; Sulong, A.B. Processing titanium foams using tapioca starch as a space holder. J. Mater. Processing Technol. 2012, 212, 83–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shbeh, M.M.; Goodall, R. Design of water debinding and dissolution stages of metal injection moulded porous Ti foam production. Mater. Des. 2015, 87, 295–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Thomsen, O.T.; Bozhevolnaya, E.; Lyckegaard, A. (Eds.) Sandwich Structures 7: Advancing with Sandwich Structures and Materials; Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malloy, R.A. Plastic Part Design for Injection Molding 2010; Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG: Munich, Germany, 2005; Volume I–XIV. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barbosa, A.P.C.; Bram, M.; Stöver, D.; Buchkremer, H.P. Realization of a titanium spinal implant with a gradient in porosity by 2-component-metal injection moulding. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2013, 15, 510–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bootchai, S.; Taweejun, N.; Manonukul, A.; Kanchanomai, C. Metal Injection Molded Titanium: Mechanical Properties of Debinded Powder and Sintered Metal. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2020, 29, 4559–4568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sidambe, A.T.; Derguti, F.; Todd, I. Metal Injection Moulding of Low Interstitial Titanium. Key Eng. Mater. 2020, 520, 145–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deing, A.; Luthringer, B.; Laipple, D.; Ebel, T.; Willumeit, R. A porous TiAl6V4 implant material for medical application. Int. J. BioMater. 2014, 2014, 904230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ismail, M.H.; Goodall, R.; Davies, H.A.; Todd, I. Porous NiTi alloy by metal injection moulding/sintering of elemental powders: Effect of sintering temperature. Mater. Lett. 2012, 70, 142–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nor, N.H.M.; Muhamad, N.; Jamaludin, K.R.; Ahmad, S.; Ibrahim, M.H.I. Characterisation of titanium alloy feedstock for metal injection moulding using palm stearin binder system. Adv. Mater. Res. 2011, 264–265, 586–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jamaludin, K.R.; Muhamad, N.; Abolhasani, H.; Murtadhahadi; Rahman, M.N.A. An influence of a binder system to the rheological behavior of the SS316l Metal Injection Molding (MIM) feedstock. Adv. Mater. Res. 2011, 264–265, 554–558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thian, E.S.; Loh, N.H.; Khor, K.A.; Tor, S.B. Effects of debinding parameters on powder injection molded Ti-6Al-4V/HA composite parts. Adv. Powder Technol. 2001, 12, 361–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- German, R.M.; Bose, A. Injection Molding of Metals and Ceramics; Metal Powder Industries Federation: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Shbeh, M.M.; Goodall, R. Open pore titanium foams via metal injection molding of metal powder with a space holder. Met. Powder Rep. 2016, 71, 450–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Oshida, Y. Bioscience, and Bioengineering of Titanium Materials, 2nd ed.; Elsevier: London, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Rodriguez-Contreras, A.; Punset, M.; Calero, J.A.; Gil, F.J.; Ruperez, E.; Manero, J.M. Powder metallurgy with space holder for porous titanium implants: A review. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2021, 76, 129–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, B.; Li, Z.; Lu, X. Effect of sintering processing on property of porous Ti using space holder technique. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 2020, 25, 2965–2973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerling, R.; Aust, E.; Limberg, W.; Pfuff, M.; Schimansky, F.P. Metal injection moulding of gamma titanium aluminide alloy powder. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2006, 423, 262–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arensburger, D.S.; Pugin, V.S.; Fedorchenko, I.M. Properties of electrolytic and reduced titanium powders and sinterability of porous compacts from such powders. Sov. Powder Metall. Met. Ceram. 1968, 7, 362–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, Q. Cold Compaction and Sintering of Titanium and Its Alloys for Near-Net-Shape or Preform Fabrication. Int. J. Powder Metall. 2010, 46, 29–44. [Google Scholar]
- Bolzoni, L.; Esteban, P.G.; Ruiz-Navas, E.M.; Gordo, E. Mechanical behaviour of pressed and sintered titanium alloys obtained from prealloyed and blended elemental powders. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2012, 14, 29–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yang, Y.F.; Luo, S.D.; Bettles, C.J.; Schaffer, G.B.; Qian, M. The effect of Si additions on the sintering and sintered microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti–3Ni alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2011, 528, 7381–7387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oh, J.M.; Koo, J.G.; Lim, J.W. Variation in lattice parameters and strain of sintered titanium powder by advanced hydrogen sintering process. Powder Technol. 2018, 330, 27–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghasemi, A.; Hosseini, S.R.; Sadrnezhaad, S.K. Pore control in SMA NiTi scaffolds via space holder usage. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2012, 32, 1266–1270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, C.E.; Yamada, Y.; Shimojima, K.; Chino, Y.; Hosokawa, H.; Mabuchi, M. Novel titanium foam for bone tissue engineering. J. Mater. Res. 2002, 17, 2633–2639. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kotan, G.; Bor, A.Ş. Production and characterization of high porosity Ti-6Al-4V foam by space holder technique powder metallurgy. Turk. J. Eng. Environ. Sci. 2007, 31, 149–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pałka, K.; Pokrowiecki, R. Porous Titanium Implants: A Review. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2018, 20, 1700648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Daudt, N.F.; Bram, M.; Barbosa, A.P.C.; Alves, C. Surface modification of highly porous titanium by plasma treatment. Mater. Lett. 2015, 141, 194–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seeber, A.; Nelmo, A.; Viana, C.; Egert, P.; Angheben, F.; Lago, A. Sintering Unalloyed Titanium in DC Electrical Abnormal Glow Discharge. Mater. Res. 2010, 13, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Conventional powder compaction with space holder (PC–SH) | - High level of porosity (60–80%), with adequate mechanical strength - Easy to industrialize, less expensive, as well as less time-consuming than prototyping techniques (SLM, FDM, or 3D printing) - Less waste of materials | - Randomness of the process and type of SH particle could produce a variation in wall thickness and interconnection size that can deteriorate its mechanical performance - High plastic deformation - Geometry limitation |
Metal additive manufacturing (AM) | - Less waste - High geometrical freedom - High precision components - Moderate energy costs - Rapid prototyping and on-site repair | - Expensive equipment - More time-consuming - Molten pool instabilities and higher residual stresses - Higher probability of contamination (for laser-based printing) - Unpredictable properties due to melting and thermal history. |
Metal injection molding (MIM–SH) | - Capable of producing both porous and dense small parts - High design flexibility - Large-scale production - Free geometry and design - Low cost | - Reduced part size - Higher initial cost than PC–SH - A quantity of material is removed during processing - 15–20% linear shrinkage during processing |
Material | Particle Size | Removal | Observation | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) | 200–500 µm | Aqueous solution 50–60 °C for 40 to 72 h | - Good water solubility and low cost - High melting point | [22,28,67] |
Potassium Chloride (KCl) | 250–500 µm | Aqueous solution 50–60 °C for 24 to 72 h or thermal removal at 750 °C for 2 h | - High solubility in water, available in multiple shapes - Lower melting point | [27,28,29] |
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) | D50 = 600 µm | Thermal 200–450 °C for 2 h | - Control of the macropore morphology - Can be used as a binder - May contaminate the powder with C and O | [22,68] |
Magnesium | 300–1500 µm | Thermal during sintering | - Can be leached with solvents | [69] |
Ammonium bicarbonate NH4HCO3 | 500–800 µm | Thermal 175 °C | - May contaminate the powder with interstitial elements - Easy and complete removable due to moderate decomposition temperature | [26,70] |
Tapioca Starch | 100–400 μm | Aqueous solution or in a furnace at 450 °C | - Low cost - Easy access - Easy removal | [71] |
Ref. | Ti Powder | Solid Loading Ti + SH (vol.%) | Space Holder (vol.%) | SH Grain Size (µm) | Binder (vol.%) | Sintering Temperature and Time | Porosity after Sintering (vol.%) | Young’s Modulus (GPa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Morelli et al. [22] | Angular HDH D50 = 20.26 µm | 50–60 | 50 | 300–500 | 50–40 | 1000 °C for 4 h | 59–51 | 6–12 |
Zheng et al. [23] | HDH <77 µm | 55 | 30–40–50 | <290 | 45 | 1150 °C for 2 h | 42–45–62 | 3.0–1.5–1.1 |
Daudt et al. [27] | Spherical gas-atomized <32.8 µm | 80 | 70 | 355–500 | 20 | 1200 °C for 3 h | 64 | N/A |
Laptev et al. [29] | Spherical gas-atomized D50 = 19.1 µm | 72–75–80 | 70 | 355–500 | 28–25–20 | 1200 °C for 3 h | 59–61–55 | 8.6–7.4–10.3 |
Shbeh et al. [30] | Spherical gas-atomized <74.9 μm | 58 | 0–17–35–52–60 | D50 = 366 | 42 | 1320 °C for 2 h | 20–44–56–62–65 | N/A |
Özbilen et al. [67] | Irregular HDH D50 = 48.3 µm | 68 | 70 | 100–500 | 32 | 1300 °C for 3 h | 61 | N/A |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Neto, F.C.; Giaretton, M.V.; Neves, G.O.; Aguilar, C.; Tramontin Souza, M.; Binder, C.; Klein, A.N. An Overview of Highly Porous Titanium Processed via Metal Injection Molding in Combination with the Space Holder Method. Metals 2022, 12, 783. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050783
Neto FC, Giaretton MV, Neves GO, Aguilar C, Tramontin Souza M, Binder C, Klein AN. An Overview of Highly Porous Titanium Processed via Metal Injection Molding in Combination with the Space Holder Method. Metals. 2022; 12(5):783. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050783
Chicago/Turabian StyleNeto, Francisco Cavilha, Mauricio Vitor Giaretton, Guilherme Oliveira Neves, Claudio Aguilar, Marcelo Tramontin Souza, Cristiano Binder, and Aloísio Nelmo Klein. 2022. "An Overview of Highly Porous Titanium Processed via Metal Injection Molding in Combination with the Space Holder Method" Metals 12, no. 5: 783. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050783