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Volume 13
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Sports, Volume 13, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 42 articles

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13 pages, 968 KB  
Article
Effects of Arch Support Pad Stiffness on Lower-Limb Biomechanics During Single-Leg Landing
by Chu-Hao Li, Qiu-Qiong Shi, Kit-Lun Yick, Ming-Yu Hu and Shi-Wei Mo
Sports 2025, 13(9), 323; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090323 - 11 Sep 2025
Abstract
Arch structure is a crucial interface between the human body and the ground during landing tasks, but the biomechanical effects of arch support stiffness remain insufficiently explored. This study examines the effects of arch supports with different stiffnesses on lower-limb biomechanics during landing. [...] Read more.
Arch structure is a crucial interface between the human body and the ground during landing tasks, but the biomechanical effects of arch support stiffness remain insufficiently explored. This study examines the effects of arch supports with different stiffnesses on lower-limb biomechanics during landing. Twelve male participants (six normal arches, six flat feet) performed a single-leg drop landing from a 45 cm height under four arch support conditions: no arch support pad (NAP), soft-stiffness arch support pad (SAP), medium-stiffness arch support pad (MAP), and high-stiffness arch support pad (HAP). Dominant lower-limb joint angles and moments in the sagittal plane and vertical ground reaction force (vGRF)-related parameters—time to peak vGRF, peak vGRF, and max loading rate—were recorded using a motion capture system and force plate. Data were analyzed using one-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Arch pad stiffness significantly affected ankle and knee kinematics. The NAP condition exhibited significantly higher ankle plantarflexion at initial contact (p ≤ 0.01), as well as larger range of motion (ROM) of the knee (p = 0.03) and hip (p < 0.01), compared to the use of a SAP or MAP. The use of a HAP resulted in a significantly lower peak ankle dorsiflexion moment and larger peak knee flexion angle than the other conditions (p ≤ 0.04). The peak knee extension moment was the highest when using a NAP, and was significantly higher than that shown with the use of a MAP or HAP (p ≤ 0.02). No significant differences were observed in hip joint moments or vGRF-related parameters across conditions (p ≥ 0.52). These results indicate that hard-stiffness arch support pads modulate lower-limb mechanics during landing, potentially enhancing shock absorption and reducing knee loading. Full article
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15 pages, 785 KB  
Article
Knowledge of Targeted Muscles and Proper Form in Strength Training: A Cross-Sectional Survey of 1000 Adults Across Age, Sex, and Instructional Experience
by Yoshiki Kobayashi, Megumi Gonno, Kyosuke Oku, Yuki Mori and Noriyuki Kida
Sports 2025, 13(9), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090322 - 11 Sep 2025
Abstract
With the growing availability of strength training information through online platforms and social media, there is an increasing need to ensure that individuals possess sufficient knowledge to train safely and effectively. Nonetheless, previous studies on strength training literacy have primarily focused on university [...] Read more.
With the growing availability of strength training information through online platforms and social media, there is an increasing need to ensure that individuals possess sufficient knowledge to train safely and effectively. Nonetheless, previous studies on strength training literacy have primarily focused on university students and have not adequately examined differences in knowledge across age groups or the roles of training experience and instruction. This study aimed to assess the knowledge of (a) targeted muscle groups and (b) proper form and movement among adults aged 20–69 years and to explore how this knowledge varies by age, sex, and experience in training and professional instruction. A total of 1000 adults (100 males and 100 females in each decade from their 20s to 60s) participated in an online survey. The participants were categorized into three groups according to their training and instructional experience. Knowledge was assessed using 10 items pertaining to targeted muscles and 18 items related to exercise form and movement. Three-way analysis of variance was conducted to analyze the associations between age, sex, and experience. Overall, 75.5% of the participants reported strength training experience, whereas 29.3% had received instruction. Knowledge of the targeted muscle groups was significantly higher in participants in their 60s than in those in their 20s (p = 0.014); however, the overall accuracy remained below 60%. No significant effect of instruction on anatomical knowledge was observed. In contrast, both training and instructional experience were positively associated with knowledge of form and movement, although the accuracy remained modest among all groups (50–60%). Sex differences in instructional experience varied by age, with older females reporting higher rates than their male counterparts. In conclusion, knowledge of strength training among adults remains insufficient, particularly regarding anatomical targets. Although instruction enhances the understanding of form and movement, it does not guarantee anatomical literacy. To improve training outcomes and safety, instructional strategies should integrate clear, structured, and pedagogically informed approaches that emphasize movement execution and muscle engagement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)
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19 pages, 346 KB  
Article
Health-Related Quality of Life and Dietary Supplement Use in Physically Active People and Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study
by Walter Sapuppo, Davide Giacconi, Antonietta Monda, Antonietta Messina, Daniele Saccenti, Claudia Maria Mineo, Maria Casillo, Salvatore Allocca, Giovanni Michelini, Regina Gregori Grgič, Vincenzo Monda, Jacopo Lamanna, Mattia Ferro, Girolamo Di Maio, Marcellino Monda and Marco La Marra
Sports 2025, 13(9), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090321 - 11 Sep 2025
Abstract
The use of dietary supplements is widespread among athletes and physically active individuals, yet their impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated the associations between supplement use, physical activity patterns, and HRQoL in a heterogeneous sample of [...] Read more.
The use of dietary supplements is widespread among athletes and physically active individuals, yet their impact on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) remains insufficiently understood. This study investigated the associations between supplement use, physical activity patterns, and HRQoL in a heterogeneous sample of 537 adults engaged in sports at amateur, professional, or recreational levels. Participants completed an online survey assessing demographics, supplement use, physical activity habits, and quality of life using the SF-36 questionnaire. Statistical analyses included chi-square tests and independent-samples t-tests to explore relationships between supplement use, body mass index (BMI), motivational variables, and HRQoL outcomes. Results indicated that 46.7% of participants reported consuming at least one supplement or substance, with an average of 1.91 products. The primary motivations included performance enhancement (30.7%) and combined performance and aesthetic goals (12.1%). A significant association emerged between supplement use and the consistency of physical activity over time, as well as the individual’s motivation for engaging in exercise. Participants who maintained stable activity levels and those driven by performance or competitive motives were more likely to use supplements. In contrast, individuals exercising primarily for physical and psychological health were less likely to report supplement use. When comparing HRQoL scores, supplement users showed significantly lower levels of impairment due to emotional issues (RE), social functioning (SF), and bodily pain (BP). Among these variables, only Bodily Pain presented a small effect size, suggesting a meaningful difference between users and non-users. These findings highlight that while supplements are commonly used in athletic contexts, their association with improved quality of life is limited, and may even reflect attempts to manage physical discomfort. Further research is needed to clarify the directionality of these relationships and inform safe and evidence-based consumption. Full article
26 pages, 1048 KB  
Review
Considering the Effects of Cannabinoids and Exercise on the Brain: A Narrative Review
by Amir Yahya Rajaei, J. Patrick Neary, Elizabeth S. Thompson, Jyotpal Singh and Cameron S. Mang
Sports 2025, 13(9), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090320 - 11 Sep 2025
Abstract
Recently, there has been rising interest in the use of cannabis and its derivatives as therapeutic tools to support brain health, particularly in athletes. Cannabis-based substances interact with the endogenous cannabinoid (i.e., endocannabinoid) system, which is involved in widespread physiological processes that contribute [...] Read more.
Recently, there has been rising interest in the use of cannabis and its derivatives as therapeutic tools to support brain health, particularly in athletes. Cannabis-based substances interact with the endogenous cannabinoid (i.e., endocannabinoid) system, which is involved in widespread physiological processes that contribute to brain function. In other work, the benefits of exercise for brain health have been prominently noted. Despite large bodies of work on both cannabinoid and exercise influences on brain function, there is an understudied overlap in their physiological effects that may be especially important in athletic populations regularly engaged in high volumes of exercise. This narrative review describes mechanistic overlaps between cannabinoid and exercise effects on brain function. The literature search was broad, emphasizing research published since 2010 and including randomized clinical trials, observational studies, case studies, preclinical work, both human and animal studies, and information presented in related review articles. The focal point of the current review is the potentially overlapping effects of cannabinoids and exercise on brain function via physiological processes underpinning inflammation, vascular function, and neuroplasticity. Mechanisms are described in detail with consideration of common and contrasting influences of cannabinoids and exercise on the brain. Altogether, the compiled information suggests that indirect and direct interactions between these two therapeutic avenues have potential to introduce additive, synergistic, or opposing effects. Considering such interactions will be critical in optimizing therapeutic strategies involving cannabinoids as they are increasingly applied in the sport sciences and beyond. Full article
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11 pages, 601 KB  
Review
Urinary Incontinence in Young Gymnastics Athletes: A Scoping Review
by Alice Higounenc, Alice Carvalhais, Ágata Vieira and Sofia Lopes
Sports 2025, 13(9), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090319 - 10 Sep 2025
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Urinary incontinence (UI) is increasingly reported among young nulliparous women, especially those engaged in high-impact sports. This may increase the risk of developing stress urinary incontinence (SUI) later in life. This scoping review aims to synthesise current evidence on UI in gymnasts, [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Urinary incontinence (UI) is increasingly reported among young nulliparous women, especially those engaged in high-impact sports. This may increase the risk of developing stress urinary incontinence (SUI) later in life. This scoping review aims to synthesise current evidence on UI in gymnasts, identify the gymnastics modalities with the highest prevalence of UI, and examine the outcomes measures and interventions considered for UI. Methods: A scoping review was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Cochrane, Science Direct, Scielo, EBSCO, PEDro, and NIH. Studies published in English or Portuguese between January 2012 and May 2023 were included. Review articles, qualitative studies, and conferences abstracts were excluded. Studies were analysed according to the PRISMA-ScR framework. Results: Out of 169 identified studies, 4 were included. SUI emerged as the most prevalent type of UI, particularly in artistic and trampoline modalities. All the studies used the ICIQ-UI-SF to assess UI. Reported outcomes included prevalence of UI and SUI, impact on quality of life and athletic performance, as well as knowledge about UI and pelvic floor. No studies investigated treatments for UI. Conclusions: The prevalence of SUI is high among gymnasts (70%), especially in artistic and trampoline disciplines. Although there is outcome heterogeneity across studies, all used the ICIQ-UI-SF. There is a critical gap regarding interventions for UI in this population. Full article
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14 pages, 808 KB  
Article
Breaking Barriers: Understanding the Impact of Intellectual Impairment on Inductive Reasoning in Basketball
by Javier Pinilla-Arbex, Javier Pérez-Tejero and Yves Vanlandewijck
Sports 2025, 13(9), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090318 - 10 Sep 2025
Abstract
Access to high-performance sports is crucial for the holistic development and well-being of athletes with intellectual impairment (II). However, ensuring fair and equitable participation requires effective eligibility systems. This study investigates how basketball-specific inductive reasoning impacts athletes with II. A total of 92 [...] Read more.
Access to high-performance sports is crucial for the holistic development and well-being of athletes with intellectual impairment (II). However, ensuring fair and equitable participation requires effective eligibility systems. This study investigates how basketball-specific inductive reasoning impacts athletes with II. A total of 92 elite male players with II (average age 26.3 ± 7 years) and 128 control players without II participated. This study used a tailored test to assess the ability to quickly and accurately arrange 12 photo series depicting basketball sequences. Athletes with II were hypothesized to require more time and arrange the image sequences less accurately compared to their peers. The results indicated that athletes with II took significantly more time (41.2 s ± 20.2 s) and arranged the image sequences less accurately than senior players without II (19.2 s ± 5.9 s). A discriminant function analysis classified 84.1% of players accurately, confirming that athletes with II performed at a lower level in basketball-specific activities that require inductive reasoning. These findings contribute to the development of Phase 3 of the classification model for athletes with II, which consists of 4 phases. This helps establish the eligibility system boundaries in basketball for individuals with II, promoting equitable access for athletes to high-performance sports. Full article
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18 pages, 2292 KB  
Systematic Review
The Effect of Consuming Caffeine Before Late Afternoon/Evening Training or Competition on Sleep: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
by Adem Kocak, Ekavi Georgousopoulou, Catherine R. Knight-Agarwal, Raymond Matthews and Michelle Minehan
Sports 2025, 13(9), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090317 - 10 Sep 2025
Abstract
Many athletes consume caffeine before late afternoon/evening training sessions or competition, yet the impact on subsequent sleep remains unclear. This systematic review with meta-analysis examined the effects of late afternoon/evening caffeine consumption on sleep in athletes. Ten studies (n = 128 athletes) [...] Read more.
Many athletes consume caffeine before late afternoon/evening training sessions or competition, yet the impact on subsequent sleep remains unclear. This systematic review with meta-analysis examined the effects of late afternoon/evening caffeine consumption on sleep in athletes. Ten studies (n = 128 athletes) involving randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental designs were included if caffeine was consumed prior to late afternoon/evening training and subsequent sleep was measured. Meta-analysis followed PRISMA guidelines with risk of bias assessed using RoB-2 and ROBINS-I tools. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials revealed a small reduction in sleep efficiency with evening caffeine consumption: mean difference −4.87%, 95% CI −7.45 to −2.29, p = 0.04, though this effect was not robust in leave-one-out sensitivity analyses. Total sleep time showed a non-significant trend toward reduction: mean difference −32.47 min, 95% CI −69.93 to 4.99, p = 0.08, I2 = 0%. Athletes consistently reported substantial subjective sleep impairment following evening caffeine intake (3–6 mg/kg BM), creating a pronounced objective–subjective disconnect. The most notable finding is that athletes consistently perceive substantial sleep disruption despite inconsistent objective changes, highlighting the importance of subjective sleep experience in athletic populations. These findings should be interpreted cautiously given the small number of studies and predominance of male participants, limiting generalisability. Full article
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15 pages, 417 KB  
Article
Physiological Predictors of Peak Velocity in the VAM-EVAL Incremental Test and the Role of Kinematic Variables in Running Economy in Triathletes
by Jordi Montraveta, Ignacio Fernández-Jarillo, Xavier Iglesias, Andri Feldmann and Diego Chaverri
Sports 2025, 13(9), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090316 - 10 Sep 2025
Abstract
This study examined the influence of physiological parameters on peak velocity (Vpeak) and of kinematic variables on running economy (RE) during an outdoor incremental VAM-EVAL test completed by eleven national-level triathletes. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), ventilatory thresholds, RE, and minimum muscle [...] Read more.
This study examined the influence of physiological parameters on peak velocity (Vpeak) and of kinematic variables on running economy (RE) during an outdoor incremental VAM-EVAL test completed by eleven national-level triathletes. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), ventilatory thresholds, RE, and minimum muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2min) were obtained with a portable gas analyzer and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), while cadence, stride length, vertical oscillation, and contact time were recorded with a foot-mounted inertial sensor. Multiple linear regression showed that VO2max and SmO2min together accounted for 86% of the variance in Vpeak (VO2max: r = 0.76; SmO2min: r = −0.68), whereas RE at 16 km·h−1 displayed only a moderate association (r = 0.54). Links between RE and kinematic metrics were negligible to weak (r ≤ 0.38). These findings confirm VO2max as the primary determinant of Vpeak and suggest that SmO2min can be used as a complementary, non-invasive marker of endurance capacity in triathletes, measurable in the field with portable NIRS. Additionally, inter-individual differences in cadence, stride length, vertical oscillation, and contact time suggest that kinematic adjustments are not universally effective but rather highly individualized, with their impact on RE likely depending on each athlete’s specific characteristics. Full article
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12 pages, 302 KB  
Systematic Review
Impact of Exercise Therapy in ERAS Prehabilitation for Major Surgery: A Systematic Review
by Anna Antonia Valenzano, Paride Vasco, Gabriella D’Orsi, Tommaso Cassano, Raffaella Marzovillo, Antonio Di Stasi and Giuseppe Cibelli
Sports 2025, 13(9), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090315 - 10 Sep 2025
Abstract
(1) This systematic review evaluates the role of structured exercise within the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol, a multidisciplinary approach designed to reduce surgical stress and enhance recovery. Prehabilitation, primarily through controlled physical activity, is a fundamental component of ERAS, preparing patients, [...] Read more.
(1) This systematic review evaluates the role of structured exercise within the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol, a multidisciplinary approach designed to reduce surgical stress and enhance recovery. Prehabilitation, primarily through controlled physical activity, is a fundamental component of ERAS, preparing patients, both physically and mentally, for major surgery. (2) A systematic search following PRISMA guidelines was conducted using PubMed, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Wiley databases to identify relevant studies published up to January 2025. Inclusion criteria encompassed randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and meta-analyses reporting postoperative complications, length of hospital stay (LOS), and overall recovery. (3) A total of 64 studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings consistently demonstrate that structured exercise interventions—such as aerobic activities, resistance training, and flexibility routines—were associated with postoperative complications, shorten hospital stays, and enhance functional recovery. These interventions improve cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, and psychological well-being. (4) Despite potential limitations in the systematic search, as heterogeneity of protocols, publication bias, language restrictions, the evidence supports the integration of structured exercise as a cornerstone of ERAS prehabilitation. Future research should focus on standardizing exercise protocols and exploring personalized strategies to optimize surgical outcomes across diverse patient populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)
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15 pages, 2249 KB  
Article
Impact of Psychosocial Intervention on Performance Determinants in Competitive Swimmers: Roles of Coach, Family, Environment, and Athlete Characteristics
by Alejandro López-Hernández, Juan Ángel Simón-Piqueras, David Zamorano-García, David B. Pyne and José María González Ravé
Sports 2025, 13(9), 314; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090314 - 9 Sep 2025
Abstract
(1) Background: This study analyzed the effects of intervention programs conducted between 2021 and 2025 as part of the “Aula UCLM-FNCLM” initiative—a partnership between a regional swimming federation and the university—on psychosocial factors in trained swimmers. This program presents interventions for swimmers, their [...] Read more.
(1) Background: This study analyzed the effects of intervention programs conducted between 2021 and 2025 as part of the “Aula UCLM-FNCLM” initiative—a partnership between a regional swimming federation and the university—on psychosocial factors in trained swimmers. This program presents interventions for swimmers, their coaches, their families, and their sports environment. (2) Methods: The effects of a 4-year intervention program on the Castilla-La Mancha swimming team, classified as Tier 3 (Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level), according to the McKay classification framework (2021 team with 55 swimmers, 25 men, and 30 women; 17.3 ± 5.3 years), and the same sample in 2025 (42 swimmers, 19 men, 23 women—17 ± 2.8 years—and 11 dropouts). A self-perception questionnaire on performance in sport (CAED) was used. (3) Results: The results showed higher ratings (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.30) from the swimmers of the 2025 CLM team in the coach factor, and moderate changes in the roles played by family (p < 0.05, η2 = 0.12) and environment (p < 0.05, η2 = 0.11). The only factor that did not improve was personal characteristics. (4) Conclusions: The UCLM-FNCLM program has contributed to improving the role of factors related to performance in sport (coach, family, and sports environment) in a cohort of regional-based swimmers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Physical Education, Exercise, and Sports Interventions on Children and Adolescent Cognition and Academic Achievement)
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13 pages, 422 KB  
Article
Ischemic Preconditioning Attenuates the Decline in Repeated Anaerobic Performance Under Simulated Altitude: A Randomized Crossover Study
by Miłosz Drozd, Jakub Chycki, Adam Maszczyk, Hiago L. R. Souza, Adam Zajac and Moacir Marocolo
Sports 2025, 13(9), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090313 - 8 Sep 2025
Abstract
Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia [...] Read more.
Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia (NOR), (2) normobaric hypoxia (HYP; FiO2 = 14.7%), and (3) hypoxia with IPC (IPC-HYP). Each session included three 30 s cycling Wingate tests separated by four minutes of passive recovery. Blood samples were collected pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, and 15 min post-exercise to assess lactate, pH, bicarbonate (HCO3−), and creatine kinase (CK) activity. Results: Peak power output was highest under NOR during Wingate II and III. IPC-HYP attenuated the decline in peak power compared to that under HYP (e.g., Wingate II: 15.56 vs. 12.52 W/kg). IPC-HYP induced greater lactate accumulation (peak: 15.45 mmol/L, p < 0.01), more pronounced acidosis (pH: 7.18 post-exercise), and lower bicarbonate (9.9 mmol/L, p < 0.01). CK activity, measured immediately and then 1 h and 24 h post-exercise, was highest under IPC-HYP at 24 h (568.5 U/L). Conclusions: IPC-HYP mitigates the decline in peak anaerobic power observed under hypoxia, despite eliciting greater metabolic and muscular stress. These findings suggest that IPC may enhance physiological adaptation to hypoxic training, potentially improving anaerobic performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)
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15 pages, 458 KB  
Article
Match vs. Training Physical Requirements and Their Association with Field-Based Physical Tests in International CP Football
by Juan Francisco Maggiolo, Alejandro Caña-Pino, Manuel Moya-Ramón and Iván Peña-González
Sports 2025, 13(9), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090312 - 8 Sep 2025
Abstract
Objetives: This study aimed to (1) describe and compare the external physical requirements of international cerebral palsy (CP) football players during training sessions and official matches at the 2024 IFCPF World Cup, and (2) analyze the relationships between standardized field-based physical performance tests [...] Read more.
Objetives: This study aimed to (1) describe and compare the external physical requirements of international cerebral palsy (CP) football players during training sessions and official matches at the 2024 IFCPF World Cup, and (2) analyze the relationships between standardized field-based physical performance tests and the physical requirements recorded in both contexts. Methods: Twelve international outfield players from the Spanish national CP football team were monitored throughout the tournament. Physical performance was evaluated two weeks prior using 5-m and 30-m sprints, a Modified Agility Test (MAT), a dribbling test, and the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test (vIFT). Match and training physical requirements were assessed using inertial devices, including total and relative distances, velocity metrics, and acceleration/deceleration outputs. Results: Matches imposed significantly greater demands than training sessions in terms of peak velocity, total distance per minute, and distance at moderate (>12–18 km/h) and high (>18 km/h) intensities (t = 2.79 to 8.06; p = 0.01; ES(d) = 0.50 to 1.45). Training sessions exhibited greater variability in load while match requirements were consistent across games. Performance in the MAT and dribbling tests correlated with several physical indicators in both training and competition. In contrast, vIFT and sprint tests showed limited associations, especially with match variables. Conclusions: Match play elicits higher and more stable physical requirements than training. The MAT and dribbling tests appear to be ecologically valid tools for assessing functional readiness in CP football. These findings support the integration of specific physical tests and tailored training designs to better replicate the competitive requirements of international CP football. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)
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16 pages, 1790 KB  
Article
Associations Between Isokinetic Torque and External Load Metrics During Youth Soccer Matches
by Yiannis Michailidis
Sports 2025, 13(9), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090311 - 8 Sep 2025
Abstract
Physical fitness, especially strength, is key for football performance and injury prevention, but its role in match running remains unclear. This study examined correlations between knee flexor and extensor isokinetic torque (60°/s, 180°/s, 300°/s) and running performance in 20 U17 players (age 16 [...] Read more.
Physical fitness, especially strength, is key for football performance and injury prevention, but its role in match running remains unclear. This study examined correlations between knee flexor and extensor isokinetic torque (60°/s, 180°/s, 300°/s) and running performance in 20 U17 players (age 16 ± 0.5 years, height 1.78 ± 0.05 m, weight 71 ± 7.1 kg) across 16 matches, with GPS tracking (Apex, STATSports, Newry, Northern Ireland). Results varied by position. Central defenders showed a negative correlation between non-dominant knee flexor torque at 300°/s and high-speed running distance (r = −0.975, p = 0.025). Side defenders displayed positive correlations between dominant knee flexor torque at 300°/s and both total distance and moderate running (r = 0.885–0.976, p < 0.05), but negative correlations with maximum speed (r < −0.89, p < 0.05). Central midfielders had several negative associations between dominant knee flexor torque at 300°/s and accelerations or decelerations (r < −0.88, p < 0.05). Side midfielders and forwards showed positive correlations between torque at higher speeds (180°/s, 300°/s) and sprint distance (r ≥ 0.85, p < 0.05). Overall, associations differed by position, velocity, and performance variable, reflecting tactical demands and the limits of single-joint testing. However, in SMFs, high positive correlations were observed, highlighting the importance of strength and its necessity in the training process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)
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13 pages, 1953 KB  
Article
Associations of Scoring Accuracy with Postural Stability and Strength Measures in Archers on a Standard Archery Site
by Chun-Hao Fan, Chien-Nan Liao and Wei-Hsiu Hsu
Sports 2025, 13(9), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090310 - 8 Sep 2025
Abstract
Archery performance is substantially influenced by postural stability. Although archery is commonly practiced outdoors, most studies have focused on short-distance indoor environments. Accordingly, this study examined the correlation between postural stability and shooting accuracy in competitive recurve and compound archers on a standard [...] Read more.
Archery performance is substantially influenced by postural stability. Although archery is commonly practiced outdoors, most studies have focused on short-distance indoor environments. Accordingly, this study examined the correlation between postural stability and shooting accuracy in competitive recurve and compound archers on a standard outdoor field (70 m for recurve and 50 m for compound). This study included 37 archers. Each archer’s performance was recorded during a simulated competition. Measurements included muscle strength, body stability, and center of pressure. Postural stability data were analyzed at 0.5 s before and 0.1 s after arrow release. The results indicated that compared with compound archers, recurve archers had stronger upper-limb muscles and exhibited lower pre-release total center of pressure (51.9 mm; p = 0.022) and medial/lateral sway (1.1 mm; p = 0.043). The compound archers exhibited lower post-release anterior/posterior sway (3.2 mm; p = 0.001) and lower angular velocities in most body segments, except for the lower back. The recurve archers relied more on post-release stability, whereas the compound archers relied more on pre-release control. Linear regression analysis identified different predictors of scoring accuracy for each bow type. Our findings highlight the need for discipline-specific training strategies, such as enhancing bow-side stability for recurve archers and drawing-side control for compound archers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics and Sports Performances (2nd Edition))
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64 pages, 992 KB  
Review
Developing the Physical Fitness of Children: A Systematic Scoping Review of Pedagogy in Research
by Mark Helme, Ian Cowburn and Kevin Till
Sports 2025, 13(9), 309; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090309 - 8 Sep 2025
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Abstract
Despite a robust body of evidence supporting both the need for and the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions in children aged 5–11, global fitness levels in this age group continue to decline. This systematic scoping review interrogates a critical, often overlooked dimension of [...] Read more.
Despite a robust body of evidence supporting both the need for and the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions in children aged 5–11, global fitness levels in this age group continue to decline. This systematic scoping review interrogates a critical, often overlooked dimension of this paradox: the pedagogy of fitness-intervention design and delivery. By analysing 106 primary research studies, the review exposes a consistent pattern. Interventions are predominantly highly structured (89%), rarely foster a mastery-oriented motivational climate (only 11%), and fail to report practitioner behaviours (65%). While most interventions yielded positive fitness outcomes, these gains were achieved without the use of pedagogical strategies known to support engagement, autonomy, and long-term adherence in children. This suggests that current approaches may achieve short-term physiological improvements but are limited in cultivating the motivational and developmental conditions necessary for sustained impact. The findings underscore a pressing need for future research to move beyond the “what” of fitness programming and rigorously address the “how.” Embedding and explicitly reporting pedagogical elements—such as supportive practitioner behaviours, autonomy-supportive structures, and mastery climates—could transform fitness interventions into developmentally appropriate, engaging, and sustainable experiences for children. Without this shift, we risk perpetuating interventions that are effective in the lab but ineffective in life. Full article
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8 pages, 193 KB  
Article
Impact of Pre-Elite Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Reconstruction on Draft Outcomes and Reinjury Risk in Elite Australian Football Players: A Retrospective Cohort Study
by James P. Veale, Anik Shawdon, Peter D'Alessandro, Jay R. Ebert and Peter K. Edwards
Sports 2025, 13(9), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090308 - 5 Sep 2025
Viewed by 143
Abstract
A history of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) during the Australian Football (AF) talent pathway may impact draft prospects and increase the risk of a second injury during a professional career. This study investigated whether a history of ACLR before the Australian Football [...] Read more.
A history of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) during the Australian Football (AF) talent pathway may impact draft prospects and increase the risk of a second injury during a professional career. This study investigated whether a history of ACLR before the Australian Football League (AFL) Draft Combine influenced draft outcomes and second ACL injury rates during an AFL career. A retrospective cohort study was undertaken, whereby AFL talent pathway medical evaluation data from 1071 male players who attended the AFL National Draft Combine between 2011 and 2022 was analyzed. Draft outcomes and secondary ACL injuries were compared between players with and without a pre-draft ACLR using chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests. Twenty-one players (2.0%) had sustained a pre-draft ACLR. All of these players were drafted into the AFL. Players with a prior ACLR were more likely to be drafted in the first two rounds (odds ratio [OR] 2.64; p = 0.039). They were also over eight times more likely to sustain another ACL injury during their careers (28.6% vs. 4.5%; OR 8.54; p < 0.001). This study showed that a pre-draft ACLR did not reduce the likelihood of being drafted but was associated with a higher risk of a secondary ACL injury during an AFL career. These findings are relevant to AFL recruiters, medical staff, and high-performance staff, and support the consideration of education and injury prevention programs for pre-elite players with prior ACLR. Full article
15 pages, 1161 KB  
Article
Jump Rope Training Improves Muscular Strength and Cardiovascular Fitness in University Students: A Controlled Educational Intervention
by Sabău Anca Maria, Ordean Mircea Nicolae, Mancini Nicola, Alexandra Szara Szekely, Simon Sorin, Ianc Dorina, Carlos Hervás-Gómez, Popovici Cornelia, Grosu Emilia Florina and Grosu Vlad Teodor
Sports 2025, 13(9), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090307 - 5 Sep 2025
Viewed by 362
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of jump rope training on cardiovascular capacity, assessed with the Ruffier test, and muscular strength, measured using isometric dynamometry (BioFET Mustec, Almere, The Netherlands), within a university physical education program. A total of 52 undergraduate students [...] Read more.
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of jump rope training on cardiovascular capacity, assessed with the Ruffier test, and muscular strength, measured using isometric dynamometry (BioFET Mustec, Almere, The Netherlands), within a university physical education program. A total of 52 undergraduate students from non-specialist faculties at the University of Oradea were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (EG) or a control group (CG). Over eight weeks, the EG performed a ten-minute jump rope training session once per week in combination with cardiovascular exercises, while the CG participated only in cardiovascular exercises. Statistical analyses revealed a significant group effect on cardiovascular response (Ruffier Index: p = 0.019; Cohen’s d = −0.271) and a substantial increase in right lower limb strength (p = 0.003; d = 1.026) in the EG compared to the CG. Furthermore, improvements were observed in upper limb strength (left arm: p = 0.010; d = 0.922) and left lower limb strength (p = 0.027; d = 0.779). These findings suggest that incorporating jump rope training into university physical education classes may represent an effective and low-cost strategy to enhance both cardiovascular efficiency and muscular strength in young adults. Given its simplicity and affordability, jump rope training appears feasible for implementation in schools and universities, even where resources are limited. Future research should investigate its long-term effects across different populations. Full article
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10 pages, 236 KB  
Article
Comparative Effectiveness of Conservative Therapies for Plantar Fasciitis: A Retrospective Observational Study
by Ana María Rayo-Pérez, José María Juárez-Jiménez, Mercedes Ortiz-Romero, Luis María Gordillo-Fernández and Raquel García-De-La-Peña
Sports 2025, 13(9), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090306 - 5 Sep 2025
Viewed by 256
Abstract
Background: Plantar fascitis is a common cause of heel pain in adults. Although various conservative treatments have been studied, comparative real-world effectiveness remains underreported. Objective: To retrospectively evaluate and compare the clinical effectiveness of percutaneous neuromodulation, extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), and custom foot [...] Read more.
Background: Plantar fascitis is a common cause of heel pain in adults. Although various conservative treatments have been studied, comparative real-world effectiveness remains underreported. Objective: To retrospectively evaluate and compare the clinical effectiveness of percutaneous neuromodulation, extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), and custom foot orthoses in patients with plantar fasciitis. Methods: A retrospective observational study was conducted from January 2020 to December 2023 at a podiatric clinic. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to medical records, and 120 patients were divided into three groups according to treatment, with 7 patients excluded due to non-compliance with follow-up. Pain intensity (VAS) and functional improvement (FFI) were assessed at baseline, 1 month, and 6 months post-treatment. Statistical analysis included paired t-tests, ANOVA, effect size (Cohen’s d), and 95% confidence intervals. The STROBE checklist was followed. Results: All three interventions showed significant improvement in pain and function at 6 months (p < 0.05). Neuromodulation achieved the highest pain reduction (VAS mean difference −6.2, d = 1.02), followed by ESWT (d = 0.78) and orthoses (d = 0.65). Functional scores improved similarly across all groups, with no significant difference at 6 months (p = 0.12). Conclusions: Percutaneous neuromodulation demonstrated greater clinical effectiveness in pain reduction compared to ESWT and orthoses, although functional outcomes were similar. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings. Full article
13 pages, 464 KB  
Article
The Impact of an 8-Week Running Technique Program on Linear and Change-of-Direction Speed in Youth Football—A Pilot Study
by Diogo Camacho, Diogo Monteiro, Rui Matos, Nuno Amaro, Raúl Antunes and Miguel Jacinto
Sports 2025, 13(9), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090305 - 4 Sep 2025
Viewed by 250
Abstract
In football, linear speed and change-of-direction speed are fundamental skills for performance in the sport. The present study aims to evaluate the effect of an 8-week running technique program on the variables described in young footballers. Thirty-one athletes participated, 16 in the intervention [...] Read more.
In football, linear speed and change-of-direction speed are fundamental skills for performance in the sport. The present study aims to evaluate the effect of an 8-week running technique program on the variables described in young footballers. Thirty-one athletes participated, 16 in the intervention group (Under-15) and 15 in the control group (Under-17). The intervention group had a mean age of 14.37 ± 0.50 years and the control group had a mean age of 15.80 ± 0.76 years. Both groups underwent two assessments, pre- and post-intervention, performing the 20-m test and the 5-0-5 Agility Test, assessing linear speed and change-of-direction speed, respectively, with timing conducted manually by trained evaluators. The results showed improvements in the intervention group in both tests, with statistically significant differences in change-of-direction speed (right foot: p = 0.010; r = 0.669; left foot: p = 0.05; r = 0.503), while the control group did not show any significant differences in either test, even showing a regression in results. The present study indicates that running technique training, even with a weekly frequency of only one session per week, may contribute to improvements in linear speed (even non-significant) but, especially, in the change of direction of young footballers. These results are important because training can promote more efficient running movement patterns, promoting benefits in terms of sports performance and the prevention of non-contact injuries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Football Science: Integrating Technology, Performance, and Well-Being)
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10 pages, 654 KB  
Article
Effects of Pneumatic Compression and Manual Massage on Recovery and Performance in Elite Brazilian Under-20 Soccer Players: A Crossover Trial
by Tiago Costa Esteves, Júlio Cesar de Oliveira Muniz Cunha, Júlio Guilherme Silva, María Rúa-Alonso, Luciano Teixeira dos Santos, Laercio Brehner Gemaque do Couto, José Vilaça-Alves, Estêvão Rios Monteiro and Igor Ramathur Telles de Jesus
Sports 2025, 13(9), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090304 - 3 Sep 2025
Viewed by 362
Abstract
Introduction: Acute neuromuscular fatigue impairs athletic performance and increases the risk of musculoskeletal injury. Recovery strategies such as manual massage (MM) and intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) have been proposed to mitigate these effects, although their efficacy in elite youth soccer remains under [...] Read more.
Introduction: Acute neuromuscular fatigue impairs athletic performance and increases the risk of musculoskeletal injury. Recovery strategies such as manual massage (MM) and intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) have been proposed to mitigate these effects, although their efficacy in elite youth soccer remains under debate. Objective: To compare the acute effects of MM and IPC on muscle damage recovery, lower limb strength, and power in Brazilian Under-20 soccer athletes. Methods: A randomized crossover study was conducted with twenty male youth athletes (18.65 ± 0.67 years) from the under-20 category of Paysandu Sport Club—Brazil. Each athlete underwent both MM and IPC interventions, separated by a seven-day washout. Variables assessed included serum creatine kinase (CK), quadricep and hamstring isometric voluntary contraction (IVC), and vertical jump (VJ). Results: MM resulted in a CK reduction of Δ = −77.1 U/L (p = 0.042; d = 0.37), indicating a moderate effect size, while IPC induced a larger reduction of Δ = −138.0 U/L (p = 0.160; d = 1.41), with a very large effect size despite the lack of statistical significance. Neither intervention produced significant changes in quadricep or hamstring IVC, nor in VJ height (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Both MM (statistical difference) and IPC (clinical difference) were viable recovery strategies for attenuating acute serum CK without impairing neuromuscular performance in elite under-20 soccer players. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Profile and Injury Prevalence in Sports)
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19 pages, 694 KB  
Article
Mood States, Injury Status, and Countermovement Jump Performance in Brazilian High-Level Sports
by Izabel Cristina Provenza de Miranda Rohlfs, Franco Noce, Carolina F. Wilke, Tim J. Gabbett, Victoria R. Terry, Alexandre Montenegro, Carlos Alexandre Assis, Paula Moreira Magalhães, Pasteur O. de Miranda, Jr. and Peter C. Terry
Sports 2025, 13(9), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090303 - 3 Sep 2025
Viewed by 368
Abstract
This study investigated relationships between mood profiles, sports injuries, and countermovement jump with arm swing (CMJ) performance in a cohort study of 417 Brazilian athletes using a multi-methods approach during the period from January to November 2023. Six distinct mood profiles were identified, [...] Read more.
This study investigated relationships between mood profiles, sports injuries, and countermovement jump with arm swing (CMJ) performance in a cohort study of 417 Brazilian athletes using a multi-methods approach during the period from January to November 2023. Six distinct mood profiles were identified, termed the shark fin (28.3%), iceberg (20.4%), submerged (18.7%), inverse iceberg (18.0%), surface (9.8%), and inverse Everest (4.8%). Athletes with the inverse Everest profile had a significantly higher risk of injury (OR = 2.90; 90% CI [1.09–7.55]) compared to those with the iceberg profile. Random forest models showed moderate predictive capability (AUC = 0.651), with vigour (12.7%) and anger (11.5%) as primary predictors. Bayesian analysis confirmed a higher injury probability in athletes with the inverse Everest profile (31.8%). Despite statistical power limitations, the results indicate that negative mood profiles, particularly those with elevated anger and fatigue, are associated with increased injury risk. Mood scores were not associated with CMJ performance variation. These findings highlight the importance of considering mood profiles in athlete monitoring systems, acknowledging the complex interplay between psychological and physical factors in injury risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Interdisciplinary Approaches to Sports in the 21st Century)
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25 pages, 1631 KB  
Systematic Review
Outcomes Addressed by Whole-Body Electromyostimulation Trials in Sportspeople and Athletes—An Evidence Map Summarizing and Categorizing Current Findings
by Svenja Reinhardt, Joshua Berger, Matthias Kohl, Simon von Stengel, Michael Uder and Wolfgang Kemmler
Sports 2025, 13(9), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090302 - 2 Sep 2025
Viewed by 348
Abstract
Whole-body electromyostimulation (WB-EMS) is a time-efficient, joint-friendly, and highly customizable training technology that particularly attracts sportspeople and athletes looking to enhance performance, accelerate regeneration, and prevent injuries with WB-EMS. Based on a systematic review of the literature, the present evidence map aimed to [...] Read more.
Whole-body electromyostimulation (WB-EMS) is a time-efficient, joint-friendly, and highly customizable training technology that particularly attracts sportspeople and athletes looking to enhance performance, accelerate regeneration, and prevent injuries with WB-EMS. Based on a systematic review of the literature, the present evidence map aimed to provide an overview of outcomes addressed by WB-EMS in exercising cohorts of different levels. In summary, the search identified 34 research projects with 39 studies and 43 publications that addressed 79 outcome categories (e.g., isometric strength) with more than 300 single outcomes (e.g., isometric strength of leg extensors). Thirty-one studies focused on performance-related outcomes, four studies addressed regeneration-related outcomes, and eight studies reported outcomes related to anthropometry. A further 14 studies reported health- and safety-related outcomes. Twenty-five of the 31 studies that reported performance parameters addressed strength, ten power, 18 jumping, ten sprinting, six agility, six endurance, five anaerobic power, and one each flexibility or balance, and five studies reported sport-specific performance outcomes (e.g., shot velocity). Apart from outcomes concerning injury prevention or sport-specific complaints, there are in particular evidence gaps relating to the acute effects of WB-EMS on regeneration, particularly with respect to muscle recovery. Semiprofessionals/professionals were rarely addressed, and if so, primarily cohorts from team sports were evaluated, while no study focused on elite strength, endurance, or precision sports athletes. Full article
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15 pages, 281 KB  
Article
Contributions of Physical Activity and Positive Psychological Functioning to Flow and Well-Being
by Nuno Rodrigues, Luís Sérgio Vieira, Cátia Sofia Martins, Catarina Moreira and Saúl Neves de Jesus
Sports 2025, 13(9), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090301 - 2 Sep 2025
Viewed by 808
Abstract
Studies highlight the importance of physical activity (PA) in relation to positive psychological functioning (PPF) among adults. Physical inactivity is strongly associated with lower levels of PPF, supporting the idea that lifestyle choices can be identified as a public health concern. There is [...] Read more.
Studies highlight the importance of physical activity (PA) in relation to positive psychological functioning (PPF) among adults. Physical inactivity is strongly associated with lower levels of PPF, supporting the idea that lifestyle choices can be identified as a public health concern. There is growing evidence of the health benefits of regular PA. This study aims to analyze the contribution of PA to flow, PPF, and well-being. The sample consisted of 226 adults aged between 18 and 65 years (M = 41.23; SD = 12.50), mostly female (70.35%), with 56% reporting regular PA. Results revealed significant differences favoring active individuals over sedentary participants in all dimensions of flow, except for loss of self-consciousness. Regular PA was associated with higher levels of flow and psychological well-being. Both regular and intensive PA, as well as environmental mastery (EM), were key contributors to flow experiences, while self-acceptance and EM were central contributors to the Live Well Index. These findings support the association between PA and lower likelihood of sedentary lifestyles, emphasize its benefits for well-being, and highlight the association between PPF and active lifestyle patterns. Full article
14 pages, 1179 KB  
Article
Early Rate of Force Development and Maximal Strength at Different Positions of the Athletic Shoulder Test in Baseball Players
by Ben Ashworth, Mikulas Hank, Omid Khaiyat, Ginny Coyles, Ferdia Fallon Verbruggen, Erika Zemkova, Frantisek Zahalka and Tomas Maly
Sports 2025, 13(9), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090300 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 500
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Peak force (PF) reflects maximal strength, while early rate of force development (RFD; 0–100 ms) indicates explosive neuromuscular output. The Athletic Shoulder (ASH) test is gaining popularity in overhead athlete profiling, but its use for assessing explosive strength in various shoulder positions [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Peak force (PF) reflects maximal strength, while early rate of force development (RFD; 0–100 ms) indicates explosive neuromuscular output. The Athletic Shoulder (ASH) test is gaining popularity in overhead athlete profiling, but its use for assessing explosive strength in various shoulder positions is underexplored. This study compared PF and RFD at shoulder abductions of 180° (ASH-I), 135° (ASH-Y), and 90° (ASH-T) in baseball players. Methods: Seventeen male athletes (age 22.7 ± 4.2 years; height 186.3 ± 7.3 cm; body mass 83.9 ± 10.1 kg) performed isometric ASH tests with the dominant arm. PF, PF relative to body mass (PF/BM), and early RFD were analysed. Results: ASH I showed 25% significantly higher PF (182 ± 41 N), PF/BM (2.15 ± 0.39 N/kg), and 40% higher RFD (545 N/s) than ASH Y or T (all p < 0.001), which did not differ significantly. PF showed excellent reliability (ICC = 0.86–0.93); RFD showed moderate-to-good reliability (ICC = 0.75–0.81). Smallest worthwhile changes were ~5% for PF and ~15% for RFD. Conclusions: Maximal isometric shoulder strength and explosiveness were highest at 180° abduction in baseball athletes, with no significant difference between 135° and 90°. PF demonstrated excellent reliability, while early RFD showed moderate to good reliability and higher variability, highlighting the need for repeated measures. These findings provide specific position reference values and support the inclusion of multiple abduction angles in shoulder strength assessment to detect neuromuscular deficits and monitor training adaptations in baseball athletes. Full article
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15 pages, 1952 KB  
Systematic Review
Incidence of Ulnar Collateral Ligament Surgery and Revision in Baseball Players: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Alberto Sáez, Gonzalo Mariscal and Carlos Barrios
Sports 2025, 13(9), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090299 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 280
Abstract
Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries are a major concern in baseball because of repetitive valgus stress from overhead throwing, often leading to surgical intervention. In recent years, UCL reconstruction has become increasingly frequent. Although this procedure has a high success rate, revision surgery [...] Read more.
Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries are a major concern in baseball because of repetitive valgus stress from overhead throwing, often leading to surgical intervention. In recent years, UCL reconstruction has become increasingly frequent. Although this procedure has a high success rate, revision surgery is often required. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the incidence of UCL surgery and revision procedures in baseball players, explored potential risk factors, and identified areas for future research. A comprehensive search of PubMed, Google Scholar, CINAHL, Embase, and SportDiscus databases was conducted for studies published between 2014 and 2024. Studies reporting the incidence of primary and revision UCL reconstructions in baseball players were included. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Methodological Index for Non-randomized Studies (MINORS). A meta-analysis using RevMan 5.4 software calculated the pooled proportions and 95% confidence intervals for UCL surgery and revision rates. Six studies met the inclusion criteria, including data from 27,366 baseball players. The pooled incidence of UCL surgery was 4.52% (95% CI: 4.20–4.84%), and the pooled incidence of revision surgery was 8.42% (95% CI: 5.49–11.35%). Statistical analyses showed high heterogeneity (I2 = 100%, p < 0.00001). Sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the robustness of the results, both in the incidence of surgery and in the revision surgery. UCL surgery is a common procedure in baseball, and a notable proportion of athletes require revision. Further research is necessary to identify the risk factors and develop preventive strategies to reduce UCL injury rates. Full article
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26 pages, 1440 KB  
Article
Computational Analysis of Neuromuscular Adaptations to Strength and Plyometric Training: An Integrated Modeling Study
by Dan Cristian Mănescu
Sports 2025, 13(9), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090298 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 448
Abstract
Understanding neuromuscular adaptations resulting from specific training modalities is crucial for optimizing athletic performance and injury prevention. This in silico proof-of-concept study aimed to computationally model and predict neuromuscular adaptations induced by strength and plyometric training, integrating musculoskeletal simulations and machine learning techniques. [...] Read more.
Understanding neuromuscular adaptations resulting from specific training modalities is crucial for optimizing athletic performance and injury prevention. This in silico proof-of-concept study aimed to computationally model and predict neuromuscular adaptations induced by strength and plyometric training, integrating musculoskeletal simulations and machine learning techniques. A validated musculoskeletal model (OpenSim 4.4; 23 DOF, 92 musculotendon actuators) was scaled to a representative athlete (180 cm, 75 kg). Plyometric (vertical jumps, horizontal broad jumps, drop jumps) and strength exercises (back squat, deadlift, leg press) were simulated to evaluate biomechanical responses, including ground reaction forces, muscle activations, joint kinetics, and rate of force development (RFD). Predictive analyses employed artificial neural networks and random forest regression models trained on extracted biomechanical data. The results show plyometric tasks with GRF 22.1–30.2 N·kg−1 and RFD 3200–3600 N·s−1, 10–12% higher activation synchrony, and 7–12% lower moment variability. Strength tasks produced moments of 3.2–3.8 N·m·kg−1; combined strength + plyometric training reached 3.7–4.2 N·m·kg−1, 10–16% above strength only. Machine learning predictions revealed superior neuromuscular gains through combined training, especially pairing back squats with high-intensity drop jumps (50 cm). This integrated computational approach demonstrates significant practical potential, enabling precise optimization of training interventions and injury risk reduction in athletic populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromuscular Performance: Insights for Athletes and Beyond)
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12 pages, 515 KB  
Article
The Effect of a High-Frequency Exercise Program During the Transition Period in Young Football Players
by Yiannis Michailidis, Andreas Stafylidis, Athanasios Mandroukas, Eleni Semaltianou, Georgios Karamousalidis, Georgios Antoniou, Vasileios Leftheroudis, Vasilios Mittas and Thomas I. Metaxas
Sports 2025, 13(9), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090297 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 283
Abstract
The transition period in football can negatively affect players’ fitness indicators. However, if appropriate training programs are implemented during this period, these effects can be reversed. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a high-frequency exercise program during the [...] Read more.
The transition period in football can negatively affect players’ fitness indicators. However, if appropriate training programs are implemented during this period, these effects can be reversed. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a high-frequency exercise program during the transition period on aerobic capacity, isokinetic torque of the lower limbs, jumping ability, and body composition. The transition period was divided into two phases: the first phase lasted two weeks and involved complete rest from exercise, and the second phase lasted four weeks during which the players completed three aerobic-focused training sessions and two maximum strength training sessions per week. A total of 13 young football players (age 17.8 ± 0.7 years, height 1.78 ± 0.07 m, weight 70.3 ± 8.4 kg) participated in the study. A paired samples t-test was applied, and statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. The results showed that players improved their maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) after the program (p = 0.037, t = −2.348). The performance in countermovement jump performance and in the isokinetic torque of the right quadriceps showed a decline (p = 0.009, t = 3.112 & p = 0.004, t = 2.299, respectively), while no changes were observed in any other parameter (p > 0.05). The findings suggest that a program with these characteristics can counteract the negative effects typically observed during the transition period. Moreover, with specialized stimuli, improvement may also be observed during the transitional period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players: 2nd Edition)
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9 pages, 200 KB  
Article
Game vs. Practice Differences in External Load in U16 and U18 Women’s Basketball Players
by Damjana V. Cabarkapa, Dimitrije Cabarkapa, Dora Nagy, Laszlo Balogh, Tamas Laczko and Laszlo Ratgeber
Sports 2025, 13(9), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090296 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 360
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was twofold: (i) to examine within-group differences in external load metrics during practice and official competition, and (ii) to examine between-group differences in external load metrics across the U16 and U18 levels of play. A total of [...] Read more.
The purpose of the present study was twofold: (i) to examine within-group differences in external load metrics during practice and official competition, and (ii) to examine between-group differences in external load metrics across the U16 and U18 levels of play. A total of thirty-six female athletes participated in the present study, of which nineteen were U16 and seventeen were U18 basketball players. The athletes wore an inertial measurement unit system (Kinexon) sampling at 20 Hz during practice and official games. The average values for each external load metric across ten practices and five games were used for performance analysis. Dependent and independent t-tests were used to examine within- and between-group statistically significant differences, respectively (p < 0.05). The findings reveal that the external load placed on the athletes during the game (e.g., distance covered, average speed, total number of accelerations and decelerations) was considerably greater than the external load during practice sessions, both on the U16 and U18 levels of play. Conversely, while the game-induced external load remained consistent across the two competitive levels, U18 players tended to spend more time and cover more distance in low-speed zones than in high-speed zones during practice, compared to their U16 counterparts, suggesting their superior movement efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)
17 pages, 780 KB  
Article
A Field-Based Screening Protocol for Hamstring Injury Risk in Football Players: Evaluating Its Functionality Using Exploratory Factor Analysis
by Nikolaos I. Liveris, Charis Tsarbou, George Papageorgiou, Elias Tsepis, Konstantinos Fousekis and Sofia A. Xergia
Sports 2025, 13(9), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090295 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 375
Abstract
This paper propose a practical field-based screening protocol for evaluating the risk of hamstring injury. This is done by discerning the most important factors that better explain the underlying structure among various measurements. Following a cross-sectional study design, ninety-nine professional and semi-professional football [...] Read more.
This paper propose a practical field-based screening protocol for evaluating the risk of hamstring injury. This is done by discerning the most important factors that better explain the underlying structure among various measurements. Following a cross-sectional study design, ninety-nine professional and semi-professional football players were assessed at the team’s facilities during the preseason period. The collected data included aspects of demographic characteristics; previous injuries; athlete sense of burnout (Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ)); hamstring (HS) flexibility (passive single leg raise test); isometric hamstring strength (make and brake test); isometric quadriceps strength; single-leg triple hop for distance; endurance of the core muscles (prone bridge, side bridge and Biering–Sørensen tests); and hamstring strength endurance (single leg hamstring bridge test). Subsequently, Exploratory Factor Analysis was performed. Following a summarized dimension reduction process, the twenty-three assessment variables were grouped into a parsimonious model of six main risk factors. Specifically, the resulting model explains 55.7% of the total variance, comprising HS and core endurance (20.2% of the variance), HS strength (12.8%), previous injuries (8.9%), ABQ (5.8%), lower limb strength (4.1%), and strength limb symmetry (3.8%). The proposed model provides a practical protocol, facilitating sports scientists in evaluating the risk for HI in the highly complex reality of field-based situations. Full article
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17 pages, 668 KB  
Article
Mechanical Running Power and Energy Expenditure in Uphill and Downhill Running
by Fabrizio Gravina-Cognetti, Diego Chaverri, Antoni Planas, Jordi Montraveta, Marta Carrasco-Marginet, Silvia Puigarnau, Javier Espasa-Labrador and Xavier Iglesias
Sports 2025, 13(9), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090294 - 1 Sep 2025
Viewed by 466
Abstract
Trail running involves constant changes in terrain and slope, complicating the accurate assessment of energy expenditure during performance. This study aimed to examine the relationship between running power output (RPO), oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2), and energy [...] Read more.
Trail running involves constant changes in terrain and slope, complicating the accurate assessment of energy expenditure during performance. This study aimed to examine the relationship between running power output (RPO), oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2), and energy expenditure per minute (EEmin) across positive and negative slopes in trained trail runners under standardized laboratory conditions. Fifteen male trail runners performed five randomized 5 min treadmill runs at 70% of VO2 maximal speed on −7%, −5%, 0%, +5%, and +7% slopes. VO2, VCO2, EEmin, respiratory exchange ratio (RQ), heart rate (HR), and RPO were recorded. Statistical analysis included Shapiro–Wilk tests for normality, repeated-measures ANOVA to compare variables across slopes, and Spearman or Pearson correlations between RPO and physiological variables. Moderate to strong positive correlations were found between RPO and VO2 (Rho = 0.80–0.84, p < 0.001) and between RPO and EEmin (Rho= 0.74–0.87, p < 0.01) across all conditions. These findings suggest that RPO measured via a wearable device may reflect changes in energy expenditure and supports the integration of wearable power metrics into training and nutritional strategies for trail running. However, further studies in female athletes, outdoor settings, extreme slopes, and altitude conditions are needed to confirm the generalizability of these results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)
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