Galaxies

21 pages, 3043 KiB

Open AccessReview

The History Goes On: Century Long Study of Romano’s Star

by Olga Maryeva, Roberto F. Viotti, Gloria Koenigsberger, Massimo Calabresi, Corinne Rossi and Roberto Gualandi

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030079 - 18 Sep 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3116

Abstract

GR 290 (M 33 V0532 = Romano’s Star) is a unique variable star in the M33 galaxy, which simultaneously displays variability typical for luminous blue variable (LBV) stars and physical parameters typical for nitrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars (WN). As of now, GR 290 [...] Read more.

GR 290 (M 33 V0532 = Romano’s Star) is a unique variable star in the M33 galaxy, which simultaneously displays variability typical for luminous blue variable (LBV) stars and physical parameters typical for nitrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars (WN). As of now, GR 290 is the first object which is confidently classified as a post-LBV star. In this paper, we outline the main results achieved from extensive photometric and spectroscopic observations of the star: the structure and chemical composition of its wind and its evolution over time, the systematic increase of the bolometric luminosity during the light maxima, the circumstellar environment. These results show that the current state of Romano’s Star constitutes a fundamental link in the evolutionary path of very massive stars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Luminous Stars in Nearby Galaxies)

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21 pages, 2842 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

An Introduction to Particle Acceleration in Shearing Flows

by Frank M. Rieger

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030078 - 10 Sep 2019

Cited by 56 | Viewed by 5518

Abstract

Shear flows are ubiquitously present in space and astrophysical plasmas. This paper highlights the central idea of the non-thermal acceleration of charged particles in shearing flows and reviews some of the recent developments. Topics include the acceleration of charged particles by microscopic instabilities [...] Read more.

Shear flows are ubiquitously present in space and astrophysical plasmas. This paper highlights the central idea of the non-thermal acceleration of charged particles in shearing flows and reviews some of the recent developments. Topics include the acceleration of charged particles by microscopic instabilities in collisionless relativistic shear flows, Fermi-type particle acceleration in macroscopic, gradual and non-gradual shear flows, as well as shear particle acceleration by large-scale velocity turbulence. When put in the context of jetted astrophysical sources such as Active Galactic Nuclei, the results illustrate a variety of means beyond conventional diffusive shock acceleration by which power-law like particle distributions might be generated. This suggests that relativistic shear flows can account for efficient in-situ acceleration of energetic electrons and be of relevance for the production of extreme cosmic rays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Particle Acceleration Processes in Astrophysical Jets)

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12 pages, 1448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Flatness Problem and the Variable Physical Constants

by Rajendra P. Gupta

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030077 - 7 Sep 2019

Viewed by 3793

Abstract

We have used the varying physical constant approach to resolve the flatness problem in cosmology. Friedmann equations are modified to include the variability of speed of light, gravitational constant, cosmological constant, and the curvature constant. The continuity equation obtained with such modifications includes [...] Read more.

We have used the varying physical constant approach to resolve the flatness problem in cosmology. Friedmann equations are modified to include the variability of speed of light, gravitational constant, cosmological constant, and the curvature constant. The continuity equation obtained with such modifications includes the scale factor-dependent cosmological term as well as the curvature term, along with the standard energy-momentum term. The result is that as the scale factor tends to zero (i.e., as the Big Bang is approached), the universe becomes strongly curved rather than flatter and flatter in the standard cosmology. We have used the supernovae 1a redshift versus distance modulus data to determine the curvature variation parameter of the new model, which yields a better fit to the data than the standard ΛCDM model. The universe is found to be an open type with a radius of curvature

R_{c} = 1.64 {(1 + z)}^{- 3.3} c_{0} / H_{0}

, where

z

is the redshift,

c_{0}

is the current speed of light, and

H_{0}

is the Hubble constant. Full article

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19 pages, 4767 KiB

Open AccessReview

The High Energy View of FR0 Radio Galaxies

by Ranieri Diego Baldi, Eleonora Torresi, Giulia Migliori and Barbara Balmaverde

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030076 - 5 Sep 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4590

Abstract

A new class of low-power compact radio sources with limited jet structures, named FR 0, is emerging from recent radio-optical surveys. This abundant population of radio galaxies, five times more numerous than FR Is in the local Universe (z < 0.05), represent a [...] Read more.

A new class of low-power compact radio sources with limited jet structures, named FR 0, is emerging from recent radio-optical surveys. This abundant population of radio galaxies, five times more numerous than FR Is in the local Universe (z < 0.05), represent a potentially interesting target at high and very-high energies (greater than 100 GeV), as demonstrated by a single case of Fermi detection. Furthermore, these radio galaxies have been recently claimed to contribute non-negligibly to the extra-galactic γ-ray background and to be possible cosmic neutrino emitters. Here, we review the radio through X-ray properties of FR 0s to predict their high-energy emission (from MeV to TeV), in light of the near-future facilities operating in this band. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radio Galaxies at TeV Energies)

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14 pages, 1067 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Complex Upper HR Diagram

by Roberta M. Humphreys

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030075 - 23 Aug 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4223

Abstract

Several decades of observations of the most massive and most luminous stars have revealed a complex upper HR Diagram, shaped by mass loss, and inhabited by a variety of evolved stars exhibiting the consequences of their mass loss histories. This introductory review presents [...] Read more.

Several decades of observations of the most massive and most luminous stars have revealed a complex upper HR Diagram, shaped by mass loss, and inhabited by a variety of evolved stars exhibiting the consequences of their mass loss histories. This introductory review presents a brief historical overview of the HR Diagram for massive stars, highlighting some of the primary discoveries and results from their observation in nearby galaxies. The sections in this volume include reviews of our current understanding of different groups of evolved massive stars, all losing mass and in different stages of their evolution: the Luminous Blue Variables (LBVs), B[e] supergiants, the warm hypergiants, Wolf–Rayet stars, and the population of OB stars and supergiants in the Magellanic Clouds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Luminous Stars in Nearby Galaxies)

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27 pages, 1242 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Wolf–Rayet Content of the Galaxies of the Local Group and Beyond

by Kathryn Neugent and Philip Massey

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030074 - 21 Aug 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5393

Abstract

Wolf–Rayet stars (WRs) represent the end of a massive star’s life as it is about to turn into a supernova. Obtaining complete samples of such stars across a large range of metallicities poses observational challenges, but presents us with an exacting way to [...] Read more.

Wolf–Rayet stars (WRs) represent the end of a massive star’s life as it is about to turn into a supernova. Obtaining complete samples of such stars across a large range of metallicities poses observational challenges, but presents us with an exacting way to test current stellar evolutionary theories. A technique we have developed and refined involves interference filter imaging combined with image subtraction and crowded-field photometry. This helps us address one of the most controversial topics in current massive star research: the relative importance of binarity in the evolution of massive stars and formation of WRs. Here, we discuss the current state of the field, including how the observed WR populations match with the predictions of both single and binary star evolutionary models. We end with what we believe are the most important next steps in WR research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Luminous Stars in Nearby Galaxies)

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9 pages, 909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PKS 2155-304: A Case Study of Blazar Variability Power Spectrum at the Highest Energies and on the Longest Timescales

by Arti Goyal

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030073 - 16 Aug 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3663

Abstract

We present the results of our Power Spectral Density (PSD) analysis for the BL Lac object PKS 2155-304, utilizing the nightly-binned long-term light curve from the decade-long monitoring, as well as the minute-binned intra-night light curve from the High Energy Stereoscopic Survey (H.E.S.S.; [...] Read more.

We present the results of our Power Spectral Density (PSD) analysis for the BL Lac object PKS 2155-304, utilizing the nightly-binned long-term light curve from the decade-long monitoring, as well as the minute-binned intra-night light curve from the High Energy Stereoscopic Survey (H.E.S.S.; >200 GeV). The source is unique for exhibiting the shortest flux-doubling timescale at Very High Energy (VHE) among its class and thus provides a rare opportunity to study the particle acceleration on the smallest spatial scales in blazar jets. The light curves are modeled in terms of the Continuous-Time Auto-Regressive Moving Average (CARMA) process. The combined long-term and intra-night PSD extends up to ∼6 decades in the temporal frequency range; unprecedented at the TeV energies for a blazar source. Our systematic approach reveals that PKS 2155-304 shows, on average, a complex shape of variability power spectrum, with more variability power on longer timescales. The long-term variability is best modeled by the CARMA(2,1) process, while the intra-night variability is modeled by a CARMA(1,0) process. We note that the CARMA(1,0) process refers to an Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process where the power-law PSD slope (PSD varies as a function of variability frequency to the power of the negative slope) changes from two to zero, above a certain “characteristic/relaxation” timescale. Even though the derived power spectrum of the intra-night light curve did not reveal a flattening, we speculate such relaxation must occur on timescales longer than a few hours for the source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring the Non-Thermal Universe)

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31 pages, 3352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3C 84: Observational Evidence for Precession and a Possible Relation to TeV Emission

by Silke Britzen, Christian Fendt, Michal Zajaček, Frédéric Jaron, Ilya Pashchenko, Margo F. Aller and Hugh D. Aller

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030072 - 14 Aug 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4901

Abstract

3C 84 (NGC 1275, Perseus A) is a bright radio source at the center of an ongoing merger, where HST observations show two colliding spiral galaxies. 3C 84 holds promise to improve our understanding about how of the activity of active galactic nuclei, [...] Read more.

3C 84 (NGC 1275, Perseus A) is a bright radio source at the center of an ongoing merger, where HST observations show two colliding spiral galaxies. 3C 84 holds promise to improve our understanding about how of the activity of active galactic nuclei, the formation of supermassive binary black holes, feedback processes, and galaxy collisions are interrelated. 3C,84 is one of only six radio galaxies, which reveal TeV emission. The origin of this TeV emission is still a matter of debate. Our present study is based on high resolution radio interferometric observations (15 GHz) of the pc-scale jet in this complex radio galaxy. We have re-modeled and re-analyzed 42 VLBA observations of 3C 84, performed between 1999.99 and 2017.65. In order to enable a proper alignment of the VLBA observations, we developed a method of a “differential” alignment whereby we select one reference point and minimize the deviations from this reference point in the remaining epochs. As a result, we find strong indication for a precession of the 3C 84 jet—not only for its central regions, but also for the outer lobe at 10 mas distance. These findings are further supported by our kinematic precession modeling of the radio flux-density monitoring data provided by the University of Michigan Radio Observatory and the Owens Valley Radio Observatory, which yields a precession time scale of about 40 yr. This time scale is further supported by literature maps obtained about 40 yr ago (1973 and 1974.1) which reveal a similar central radio structure. We suggest that the TeV flare detected by MAGIC may correlate with the precession of 3C 84, as we disentangle a projected reversal point of the precessing motion that correlates with the flaring time. This may physically be explained by a precessing jet sweeping over a new region of so far undisturbed X-ray gas which would then lead to shock-produced TeV-emission. In addition, we perform a correlation analysis between the radio data and GeV data obtained by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and find that the

γ

-ray data are lagging the radio data by 300–400 days. A possible explanation could be that the radio and the GeV data stem from different emission regions. We discuss our findings and propose that the detected jet precession can also account for the observed cavities in the X-ray emission on kpc-scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radio Galaxies at TeV Energies)

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67 pages, 920 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Hunt for Primordial Interactions in the Large-Scale Structures of the Universe

by Matteo Biagetti

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030071 - 8 Aug 2019

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 5141

Abstract

The understanding of the primordial mechanism that seeded the cosmic structures we observe today in the sky is one of the major goals in cosmology. The leading paradigm for such a mechanism is provided by the inflationary scenario, a period of violent accelerated [...] Read more.

The understanding of the primordial mechanism that seeded the cosmic structures we observe today in the sky is one of the major goals in cosmology. The leading paradigm for such a mechanism is provided by the inflationary scenario, a period of violent accelerated expansion in the very early stages of evolution of the universe. While our current knowledge of the physics of inflation is limited to phenomenological models which fit observations, an exquisite understanding of the particle content and interactions taking place during inflation would provide breakthroughs in our understanding of fundamental physics at high energies. In this review, we summarize recent theoretical progress in the modeling of the imprint of primordial interactions in the large-scale structures of the universe. We focus specifically on the effects of such interactions on the statistical distribution of dark-matter halos, providing a consistent treatment of the steps required to connect the correlations generated among fields during inflation all the way to the late-time correlations of halos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Dark Haloes to Visible Galaxies)

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35 pages, 7420 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Dissipative Processes and Their Role in the Evolution of Radio Galaxies

by Manel Perucho

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030070 - 31 Jul 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4930

Abstract

Particle acceleration in relativistic jets, to very high levels of energy, occurs at the expense of the dissipation of magnetic or kinetic energy. Therefore, understanding the processes that can trigger this dissipation is key to the characterization of the energy budgets and particle [...] Read more.

Particle acceleration in relativistic jets, to very high levels of energy, occurs at the expense of the dissipation of magnetic or kinetic energy. Therefore, understanding the processes that can trigger this dissipation is key to the characterization of the energy budgets and particle acceleration mechanisms in action in active galaxies. Instabilities and entrainment are two obvious candidates to trigger dissipation. On the one hand, supersonic, relativistic flows threaded by helical fields, as expected from the standard formation models of jets in supermassive black-holes, are unstable to a series of magnetohydrodynamical instabilities, such as the Kelvin–Helmholtz, current-driven, or possibly the pressure-driven instabilities. Furthermore, in the case of expanding jets, the Rayleigh–Taylor and centrifugal instabilities may also develop. With all these destabilizing processes in action, a natural question is to ask how can some jets keep their collimated structure along hundreds of kiloparsecs. On the other hand, the interaction of the jet with stars and clouds of gas that cross the flow in their orbits around the galactic centers provides another scenario in which kinetic energy can be efficiently converted into internal energy and particles can be accelerated to non-thermal energies. In this contribution, I review the conditions under which these processes occur and their role both in jet evolution and propagation and energy dissipation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Radio Galaxies at TeV Energies)

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10 pages, 397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Test of QU-Fitting

by Yoshimitsu Miyashita

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030069 - 23 Jul 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2997

Abstract

QU-fitting is a model-fit method to reproduce the model of the Faraday Dispersion Function (FDF or Faraday spectrum), which is a probability distribution function of polarized intensity in Faraday depth space. In order to find the best-fit parameters of the model FDF, we [...] Read more.

QU-fitting is a model-fit method to reproduce the model of the Faraday Dispersion Function (FDF or Faraday spectrum), which is a probability distribution function of polarized intensity in Faraday depth space. In order to find the best-fit parameters of the model FDF, we adopt the Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm using Geweke’s convergence diagnostics. Akaike and Bayesian Information Criteria (AIC and BIC, respectively) are used to select the best model from several FDF fitting models. In this paper, we investigate the performance of the standard QU-fitting algorithm quantitatively by simulating spectro-polarimetric observations of two Faraday complex sources located along the same Line Of Sight (LOS), varying the gap between two sources in Faraday depth space and their widths, systematically. We fix the frequency bandwidth in 700–1800 MHz and make mock polarized spectra with a high Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N). We prepare four FDF models for the fitting by changing the number of model parameters and test the correctness of MCMC and AIC/BIC. We find that the combination of MCMC and AIC/BIC works well for parameter estimation and model selection in the cases where the sources have widths smaller than 1/4 Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) and a gap larger than one FWHM in Faraday depth space. We note that when two sources have a gap of five FWHM in Faraday depth space, MCMC tends to be trapped in a local maximum likelihood compared to other situations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Power of Faraday Tomography)

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30 pages, 1694 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Halo Substructure Boosts to the Signatures of Dark Matter Annihilation

by Shin’ichiro Ando, Tomoaki Ishiyama and Nagisa Hiroshima

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030068 - 1 Jul 2019

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 5634

Abstract

The presence of dark matter substructure will boost the signatures of dark matter annihilation. We review recent progress on estimates of this subhalo boost factor—a ratio of the luminosity from annihilation in the subhalos to that originating the smooth component—based on both numerical [...] Read more.

The presence of dark matter substructure will boost the signatures of dark matter annihilation. We review recent progress on estimates of this subhalo boost factor—a ratio of the luminosity from annihilation in the subhalos to that originating the smooth component—based on both numerical N-body simulations and semi-analytic modelings. Since subhalos of all the scales, ranging from the Earth mass (as expected, e.g., the supersymmetric neutralino, a prime candidate for cold dark matter) to galaxies or larger, give substantial contribution to the annihilation rate, it is essential to understand subhalo properties over a large dynamic range of more than twenty orders of magnitude in masses. Even though numerical simulations give the most accurate assessment in resolved regimes, extrapolating the subhalo properties down in sub-grid scales comes with great uncertainties—a straightforward extrapolation yields a very large amount of the subhalo boost factor of ≳100 for galaxy-size halos. Physically motivated theoretical models based on analytic prescriptions such as the extended Press-Schechter formalism and tidal stripping modeling, which are well tested against the simulation results, predict a more modest boost of order unity for the galaxy-size halos. Giving an accurate assessment of the boost factor is essential for indirect dark matter searches and thus, having models calibrated at large ranges of host masses and redshifts, is strongly urged upon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Halo Substructure in Gamma-Ray Dark Matter Searches)

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16 pages, 3685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Evolution of Cosmological Constant, Gravitational Constant and Speed of Light Using Nonadiabatic Cosmological Model and LLR Findings

by Rajendra P. Gupta

Galaxies 2019, 7(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/galaxies7030067 - 26 Jun 2019

Viewed by 3932

Abstract

We have shown that the Hubble constant

H_{0}

embodies the information about the evolutionary nature of the cosmological constant

Λ

, gravitational constant

G

, and the speed of light

c

. We have derived expressions for the time evolution of [...] Read more.

We have shown that the Hubble constant

H_{0}

embodies the information about the evolutionary nature of the cosmological constant

Λ

, gravitational constant

G

, and the speed of light

c

. We have derived expressions for the time evolution of

G / c^{2} (\equiv K)

and dark energy density

ε_{Λ}

related to

Λ

by explicitly incorporating the nonadiabatic nature of the universe in the Friedmann equation. We have found

(d K / d t) / K = 1.8 H_{0}

and, for redshift

z

,

ε_{Λ, z} / ε_{Λ, 0} = {[0.4 + 0.6 {(1 + z)}^{- 1.5}]}^{2}

. Since the two expressions are related, we believe that the time variation of

K

(and therefore that of

G

and

c

) is manifested as dark energy in cosmological models. When we include the null finding of the lunar laser ranging (LLR) for

(d G / d t) / G

and relax the constraint that

c

is constant in LLR measurements, we get

(d G / d t) / G = 5.4 H_{0}

and

(d c / d t) / c = 1.8 H_{0}

. Further, when we adapt the standard

Λ

CDM model for the

z

dependency of

ε_{Λ}

rather than it being a constant, we obtain surprisingly good results fitting the SNe Ia redshift

z

vs distance modulus

µ

data. An even more significant finding is that the new

Λ

CDM model, when parameterized with low redshift data set (

z < 0.5

), yields a significantly better fit to the data sets at high redshifts (

z > 0.5

) than the standard ΛCDM model. Thus, the new model may be considered robust and reliable enough for predicting distances of radiation emitting extragalactic redshift sources for which luminosity distance measurement may be difficult, unreliable, or no longer possible. Full article

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Galaxies, Volume 7, Issue 3 (September 2019) – 13 articles

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