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Article

Climate Reconstruction of the Beijing Area over 650 Years Ago Based on Textual Research

by
Haiming Liu
and
Haiyan Bi
*
Natural History Museum of China, Beijing 100050, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Atmosphere 2025, 16(12), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16121394
Submission received: 12 November 2025 / Revised: 3 December 2025 / Accepted: 4 December 2025 / Published: 10 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)
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Abstract

Research on historical climate plays a crucial referential role in understanding the climate and its variation patterns in specific regions and periods, as well as in predicting future climate change. This study focuses on woody plants recorded in Xijin Zhi Jiyi (Collected Fragments of the Xijin Zhi), a historical document depicting Beijing’s general condition over 650 years ago. Using textual research methods, 11 out of 19 recorded woody plant names were identified to species level, 3 to genus level, 1 to family level, 1 was identified as a non-native species, and 3 remained uncertain. Based on this identification, climate-related studies were carried out on the 11 species-confirmed woody plants using data from the Atlas of Woody Plants in China: Distribution and Climate and the Coexistence Approach. Six key climate parameters were determined. Statistical analysis indicates that over 650 years ago, mean annual temperature in Beijing was 0.04 °C higher than today. However, during the hottest month, temperatures were 6.82% cooler than modern values, while in the coldest month, they were 138.14% warmer. Precipitation in Beijing was 88.49% higher overall than present levels. In the warmest season, rainfall was 313.55% greater, and in the coldest season, it was 1313.67% higher. These results suggest that Beijing’s climate over 650 years ago was slightly warmer overall with less variability in temperature compared to the modern era. Precipitation was significantly higher than today. In general, the Beijing region had a warm and humid climate during that period.

1. Introduction

As a crucial background condition for the rise and fall of human civilizations, historical climate change has been closely intertwined with human population size, lifestyles, distribution patterns, societal stability, and even dynastic transitions. Climate variations throughout history have driven or altered the course of human historical development. Research on historical climate contributes to understanding the processes of environmental change in historical periods, enhances the comprehension of contemporary climate change, and provides valuable references for future climate change studies [1,2,3,4,5].
In the study of historical climate, commonly employed research methods include the analysis of tree rings, corals, ice core records, sediment deposits, glacial movements, and historical documents [2]. These approaches do not directly examine climate itself but rather investigate changes in proxy indicators caused by climatic variations, thereby inferring corresponding climatic conditions, e.g., [6]. With advances in technology, instrumental recordings currently provide the most accurate climate data available to humans. However, for understanding past climates, the temporal coverage of instrument-based data remains limited.
Located in East Asia, China was ruled by the Yuan Dynasty from 1271 to 1368. Modern statistical studies indicate that throughout the 97-year reign of this dynasty, a total of 3409 natural disasters were recorded, including eight major types: floods, droughts, earthquakes, insect infestations, hailstorms, epidemics, frosts, and sandstorms [7]. Researchers have conducted multi-faceted analyses of the historical environmental conditions during this period [8,9,10,11,12]. However, studies from a natural science perspective remain relatively limited [13,14]. Moreover, most existing research tends to focus on qualitative analysis, with relatively few studies providing quantitative assessments of climatic conditions.
This study selects Xijin Zhi Jiyi (Collected Fragments of the Xijin Zhi), compiled by the Yuan dynasty writer Xiong Mengxiang and completed in the mid-14th century, as the research subject. It focuses on the flora described within the book that was distributed across Yuan Dadu (present-day Beijing). Through this research, we aim to quantitatively reconstruct the climate of the Beijing area during the Yuan dynasty. The findings are expected to contribute to understanding long-term climate variation patterns in Beijing, as well as to provide context and insight into current and future climate change trends. Additionally, this study will help lay the foundation for further research on Beijing’s historical climate.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Subject

This study utilizes the 1983 compiled edition of Xijin Zhi, titled Xijin Zhi Jiyi (Collected Fragments of the Xijin Zhi). The original text was completed in 1368 by Xiong Mengxiang during the Yuan Dynasty [15]. This work documents the architecture, prominent figures, local customs, products, and various other aspects of Yuan Dadu from over 650 years ago. Archeological evidence confirms that the historical Yuan Dadu was located in present-day Beijing [16,17]. Consequently, the flora described in the Xijin Zhi represents the local plants that existed in the Beijing area more than 650 years ago. The text records 19 species of woody plants, which form the primary focus of this research.

2.2. Research Methods

2.2.1. Taxonomic Study of Plants

Using textual criticism and comparative morphology, a taxonomic study was conducted on these 19 woody plant species to determine their taxonomic status. Specific methodologies followed the approach described in Liu et al. [18].

2.2.2. Climate Reconstruction

Climate Analysis Using the Atlas of Woody Plants in China
Climate analysis was performed using data from the Atlas of Woody Plants in China [19], a comprehensive database established by Chinese researchers in 2009. This atlas integrates authoritative sources including the Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (FRPS), the Database of Chinese Seed Plants, the Chinese and English editions of the Flora of China, the Catalogue of Life China, and the 2008 Annual Species List, covering 11,405 native woody plant species.
The woody species identified in this study were cross-referenced with this atlas to retrieve six key climatic parameters for each species.
Coexistence Analysis
After identifying the six key climatic parameters for each woody plant species, coexistence analysis was performed for each parameter using statistical software such as Excel 2016 and SPSS 13.0. The overlapping range in which all these woody plants could coexist was identified, representing the reconstructed climatic conditions for the region during that period. By determining the coexistence intervals for all six parameters, the climatic conditions of the study area from over 650 years ago were inferred.
Selected Climatic Parameters
With reference to Liu et al. [18], the climatic parameters selected in this study include
  • Mean Annual Temperature (MAT);
  • Mean Temperature of the Coldest Month (MTCM);
  • Mean Temperature of the Warmest Month (MTWM);
  • Annual Precipitation (AP);
  • Precipitation of the Coldest Quarter (PCQ);
  • Precipitation of the Warmest Quarter (PWQ).
MAT reflects the overall thermal background and energy base of a region, serving as a core indicator for defining heat zones.
MTCM indicates the general winter coldness and extreme low temperatures in the area.
MTWM represents summer heat intensity and extreme high temperatures.
AP provides an overview of regional moisture conditions and is a primary metric for classifying climate humidity.
PCQ and PWQ reflect seasonal distribution patterns of precipitation.
These long-term averages form fundamental data for studying global climate change trends, and their variations directly illustrate the evolution of the climate system.
Climate Analysis
The climatic parameters reconstructed for the region over 650 years ago through the coexistence approach were compared with corresponding modern climatic data to identify overall trends in the six parameters over the past six centuries. Modern climatic data for Beijing were obtained from the official website of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (https://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/ (accessed on 25 August 2025).

3. Results

3.1. Identification of Plant Species Recorded in the Historical Text

Based on the investigation, scientific names were determined for 11 of the 19 woody plant species documented in Xijin Zhi Jiyi. Three species were identified to the genus level (Pine—Pinus, Chastetree–Vitex, Pear–Pyrus), one to the family level (Cypress–Cupressaceae), and one non-native species (Niujinmu–Photinia serratifolia) was excluded. The remaining three plant names could not be definitely classified.
The taxonomy of the 11 wood plant names documented in Xijin Zhi Jiyi was recorded in Table 1 and Figure 1 as below.
The taxonomic result of the 11 confirmed woody plant species is listed in Table 2.

3.2. Reconstruction of Beijing’s Climate from over 650 Years Ago Using the Coexistence Approach

Based on the coexistence analysis, the climatic conditions of the Beijing area during the mid-14th century were quantitatively reconstructed. The results are summarized and shown in Figure 2.
Through a comparative analysis, the range of the six critical climatic parameters were determined based on the classified plant categories: MAT, 7.4~15.5 (°C); MTCM, −6.5~4.2 (°C); MTWM, 18.7~28 (°C); AP, 731~1358 (mm); PWQ, 346~691 (mm); PCW, 15~97 (mm).
The climatic values for the Beijing area ~650 years ago, obtained by coexistence calculation, were compared with present-day Beijing data. The results are shown in Table 3.
As shown in the table, the mean annual temperature (MAT) in Beijing over 650 years ago was 0.04 °C higher than the current level. The mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCM) was 1.64 °C higher, while the mean temperature of the warmest month (MTWM) was 1.8 °C lower.
In terms of precipitation, the mean annual precipitation (AP) was 455.36 mm greater than the present value. The precipitation of the warmest quarter (PWQ) exceeded current levels by 349.67 mm, and the precipitation of the coldest quarter (PCQ) was 64.37 mm higher.
Statistical analysis indicates that although the overall temperature in Beijing during that period was almost equivalent to modern levels, the warmest season was 6.82% cooler compared to today’s conditions, while the coldest season was 138.14% warmer compared to current negative values.
Regarding precipitation, Beijing received 88.49% more annual rainfall over 650 years ago than it does today. During the warmest season, precipitation was 313.55% higher, representing a fourfold increase. In the coldest season, precipitation exceeded modern levels by 1313.67%, indicating more than a thirteenfold increase compared to contemporary winter precipitation.

4. Discussion

Statistical analysis reveals that the mean annual temperature in Beijing over 650 years ago was 0.04 °C higher than the modern value, while the mean temperature of the coldest month was 1.64 °C higher, yet the mean temperature of the warmest month was 1.8 °C lower. The temperature difference between the coldest and warmest months during that period was 24.12 °C, compared to the modern value of 27.56 °C in Beijing. This suggests that the climate variability in Beijing was relatively milder over 650 years ago than it is today. These data indicate that although the climate in Beijing during that period was very similar to modern conditions, its annual temperature variability was slightly lower. This finding is consistent with the conclusions of Zhu’s work [1] and supports the view of the Little Ice Age during the Ming and Qing dynasties proposed in previous studies [5,37]. The present study provides quantitative metrics that more clearly illustrate the magnitude of these differences.
Previous research suggested that eastern China entered a warming period from the 13th century onward, with the coldest season being approximately 0.6 °C warmer than modern levels [1,37,38,39,40]. This study shows that the mean temperature of the coldest season in Beijing over 650 years ago was 1.64 °C higher than the corresponding modern value. While this represents a numerical discrepancy, the overall direction of change aligns with earlier findings. The differences in magnitude highlight how varying methodologies in historical climate reconstruction may lead to quantitative variations. Nevertheless, these do not alter the general conclusion that temperatures in Beijing during this period were slightly higher than today.
In terms of precipitation, annual precipitation, as well as precipitation in the warmest and coldest quarters, were all higher in Beijing over 650 years ago compared to modern values. Xijin Zhi Jiyi was completed in 1368 CE, indicating that the climate of Beijing during that period was relatively more humid compared to the present. This is consistent with previous studies, e.g., [41]. Specifically, the mean annual precipitation in Beijing during that period was 970 mm, which is 88.49% higher than the modern level. Overall, the climate of Beijing over 650 years ago can be characterized as warm and rainy, contrasting with the current warm and arid conditions. The data suggest a general trend of slight cooling and significant drying in Beijing over the past six centuries.
The study also notes that among the woody plants examined, modern species of Tilia (linden) are naturally distributed only south of the Yangtze River [42]. However, Tilia was documented in Beijing over 650 years ago. Their distribution has since shifted southward by approximately 9.4 degrees latitude, providing direct evidence of environmental changes in the Beijing region over the centuries.
According to previous studies, the period from 930 to 1310 CE was a relatively warm phase in Chinese history, with the mean annual temperature approximately 0.18 °C higher than modern levels [13,38,41,43]. This study suggests that around 1368 CE, during the late Yuan Dynasty, the mean annual temperature was about 0.06 °C higher than that of the present. This decline in temperature from the earlier warm phase indicates a cooling trend in East Asia between the Southern Song and Yuan periods. This cooling episode may have been synchronous with a contemporaneous temperature decline in Europe [7,22,37].
Studies have shown that this cooling event in Europe led to notable environmental consequences such as glacial expansion and a lowering of the tree line [43,44,45,46,47,48,49]. In China, historical records document that during the 97-year Yuan Dynasty, there were 11 instances of trees splitting due to freezing, accompanied by ice formation. Furthermore, between 1260 and 1368 CE, the Yuan Dynasty experienced 53 frost disasters and 78 hail events, which caused significant damage to agricultural production [7]. These records provide corroborating evidence that the Yuan Dynasty underwent considerable short-term cooling. This climatic deterioration may have been one of the factors contributing to the rapid decline of the dynasty within less than a century of its establishment.

5. Conclusions

Using textual research methods, we decoded a historical gazetteer compiled ca. 650 years ago that documented the Beijing area, identified the woody plants cited therein, and reconstructed the contemporary climate with native Chinese distribution-and-climate databases. Mean annual and coldest-month temperatures were slightly higher than today, whereas the hottest-month temperature was marginally lower; total precipitation exceeded present-day values by >80%. The mid-14th-century Beijing climate was thus warm–humid with a reduced seasonal temperature range. This coexistence-based reconstruction illustrates how paleo-climatic insights can be extracted from historical texts and underscores the potential role of climate change in shaping past human events.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.L. and H.B.; methodology, H.L. and H.B.; validation, H.L. and H.B.; investigation, H.L. and H.B.; data curation, H.L. and H.B.; writing—original draft preparation, H.L. and H.B.; writing—review and editing, H.L. and H.B.; funding acquisition, H.L. and H.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This investigation was funded by the Financial Projects of Beijing, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology Budding Talent Program (BGS202111).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in thearticle. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Atmosphere 16 01394 g001
Figure 1. The illustrations of the wood plant in the Xijin Zhi Jiyi. (a), Ulmus pumila L. redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (b), Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott, redrawn from the illustration in the Great Pharmacopoeia; (c), Morus alba L., redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (d), Populus tomentosa Carrière, redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (e), Toona sinensis (Juss.) Roem., redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (f), Corylus heterophylla Fisch. ex Trautv., redrawn from the illustration in the Great Pharmacopoeia; (g), Quercus acutissima Carruth., redrawn from the illustration in the Illustrated Compendium of Metals, Stones, Insects, and Plants; (h), Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino, redrawn from the illustration in the Great Pharmacopoeia.
Figure 1. The illustrations of the wood plant in the Xijin Zhi Jiyi. (a), Ulmus pumila L. redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (b), Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott, redrawn from the illustration in the Great Pharmacopoeia; (c), Morus alba L., redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (d), Populus tomentosa Carrière, redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (e), Toona sinensis (Juss.) Roem., redrawn from the illustration in Illustrated Investigations of the Names and Natures of Plants; (f), Corylus heterophylla Fisch. ex Trautv., redrawn from the illustration in the Great Pharmacopoeia; (g), Quercus acutissima Carruth., redrawn from the illustration in the Illustrated Compendium of Metals, Stones, Insects, and Plants; (h), Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino, redrawn from the illustration in the Great Pharmacopoeia.
Atmosphere 16 01394 g001
Atmosphere 16 01394 g002
Figure 2. Analysis of coexistence of woody plants in the book of Xijin Zhi Jiyi. The blue and red vertical lines within one parameter denote the positions of the minimum and maximum values, respectively. Abbreviations: MAT = mean annual temperature °C), MTCM = mean temperature of the coldest month (°C), MTWM = mean temperature of the warmest month (°C), AP = annual precipitation (mm), PWQ = precipitation of the warmest quarter (mm), PCQ = precipitation of the coldest quarter (mm). (The black horizontal lines within one parameter denote the range of values for each species, respectively).
Figure 2. Analysis of coexistence of woody plants in the book of Xijin Zhi Jiyi. The blue and red vertical lines within one parameter denote the positions of the minimum and maximum values, respectively. Abbreviations: MAT = mean annual temperature °C), MTCM = mean temperature of the coldest month (°C), MTWM = mean temperature of the warmest month (°C), AP = annual precipitation (mm), PWQ = precipitation of the warmest quarter (mm), PCQ = precipitation of the coldest quarter (mm). (The black horizontal lines within one parameter denote the range of values for each species, respectively).
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Table 1. Taxonomic Worksheet of the 11 Woody Plant Species.
Table 1. Taxonomic Worksheet of the 11 Woody Plant Species.
Ancient Plant NamesPlant DescriptionPlant Scientific NamesIllustrationReferences
DuanTrees. Bark gray, longitudinally exfoliate. Leaf blades narrowly ovate or ovate-oblong, base oblique, margin with a few minute teeth near apex, apex acuminate or acute. Cymes. Bracts band-shaped to oblanceolate, base cuneate to rounded, apex obtuse to acuminate. Sepals ovate to ovate-lanceolate. Petals shortly clawed. Fruit globose or obovoid-globose, brown or gray hairy.Tilia tuan Szyszyl. [20,21,22]
YuTrees. Bark dark gray, fissured. Petiole pubescent; leaf blade elliptic-ovate to elliptic-lanceolate, base obliquely obtuse to rounded, margin doubly serrate, apex acute to acuminate; Inflorescences fascicled cymes, appearing before leaves. Perianth lobed, margin ciliate. Samaras whitish tan, orbicular to elliptical. Seed at center of samara or occasionally slightly toward apex.Ulmus pumila L.Figure 1a[21,23,24,25]
HuaiTrees. Bark gray–brown, longitudinally striate. Leaves pinnate; petiole inflated at base; leaflets stipels subulate; blades ovate-lanceolate or ovate-oblong, papery. Panicles terminal; bracteole subulate. Calyx shortly campanulate. Corolla white or creamy yellow. Legumes green, obviously constricted between seeds, indehiscent, fleshy.Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) SchottFigure 1b[21,26]
QiuTrees. Petiole slender; leaf blade triangular-ovate or ovate-oblong, dark green adaxially, base broadly cuneate or cordate, apex long acuminate. Inflorescences corymbose-racemose, terminal. Calyx bilabiate, apex acutely 2-dentate. Corolla pale red, yellow 2-striate and dark purple spotted at throat. Capsule linear. Seeds narrowly ellipsoid.Catalpa bungei C. A. Mey. [21,27,28]
SangShrubs or trees. Bark gray, shallowly furrowed. Branches finely hairy. Stipules lanceolate. Petiole slender; leaf blade ovate to broadly ovate, irregularly lobed, adaxially bright green, base rounded, margin coarsely serrate to crenate, apex acute. Male catkins pendulous. Female catkins, pubescent; peduncle slender. Syncarp blackish purple, purple, or greenish white, ovoid, ellipsoid, or cylindric.Morus alba L.Figure 1c[21,24,29]
Bai YangTrees. Trunk usually erect; bark at first dull gray, later dark gray on basal part of trunk, furrowed, rough; crown conical to ovoid–globose. Lateral branches spreading. Petiole laterally flattened; leaf blade ovate or deltoid-ovate, adaxially dark green, shiny, base shallowly cordate to cordate or truncate, margin sinuate-dentate, apex acuminate. Capsule conical or long ovoid.Populus tomentosa CarrièreFigure 1d[21,23,24,30]
ChunTrees. Bark gray to dark brown, fissured. Petiole slender; rachis often reddish; leaflet blades narrowly lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, base asymmetric, margin serrate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences pendent. Petals white or flushed pink. Capsule narrowly elliptic; columella convex; valves reddish to dark brown. Seeds, winged at one end.Toona sinensis (Juss.) Roem.Figure 1e[21,31,32]
ZhenShrubs or small trees. Bark gray. Branchlets pubescent. Petiole slender; leaf blade elliptic-obovate, or broadly ovate, base cordate, margin irregularly and doubly serrate, apex mucronate to caudate. Male inflorescences pendulous, slender; bracts reddish brown, obovate. Female flowers bracts campanulate, striate, with triangular-ovate, entire or dentate lobes. Nut ovoid–globose.Corylus heterophylla Fisch. ex Trautv.Figure 1f[21,24,33]
XiangTrees, furrowed. Branchlets yellowish gray, lenticellate. Petiole tomentose; leaf blade narrowly elliptic-lanceolate, concolorous, base rounded to broadly cuneate, margin with spiniform teeth, apex long acuminate; tertiary veins abaxially slender. Cupules cupular to discoid. Including bracts, enclosing half part of nut; bracts subulate to ligulate, reflexed, canescent.Quercus acutissima Carruth.Figure 1g[21,34,35,36]
HuaTrees. Bark grayish white, exfoliating in sheets. Branches, dark gray or dark brown; branchlets brown. Petiole slender; leaf blade ovate-triangular, base truncate, or cuneate, margin serrate, apex acute. Female inflorescence pendulous; peduncle slender. Nutlet narrowly oblong, with membranous wings slightly longer than and about as wide as nutlet.Betula platyphylla Sukaczev [21,24,33]
Ju LiuTrees. Bark grayish white to grayish brown, exfoliating. Branchlets brownish purple to brown. Stipules brownish purple, lanceolate. Leaf blade elliptic to ovate-lanceolate adaxially sparsely hispid, base slightly oblique, rounded, or shallowly cordate, margin serrate to crenate, apex caudate-acuminate. Male flowers: shortly pedicellate. Female flowers: subsessile. Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) MakinoFigure 1h[21,25,31]
Table 2. The abbreviation of the taxonomic results of the 11 confirmed woody plant species.
Table 2. The abbreviation of the taxonomic results of the 11 confirmed woody plant species.
Ancient Plant Names Plant Scientific Names
DuanTilia tuan Szyszyl.
YuUlmus pumila L.
HuaiStyphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott
QiuCatalpa bungei C. A. Mey.
SangMorus alba L.
Bai YangPopulus tomentosa Carrière
ChunToona sinensis (Juss.) Roem.
ZhenCorylus heterophylla Fisch. ex Trautv.
XiangQuercus acutissima Carruth.
HuaBetula platyphylla Sukaczev
Ju LiuZelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino
Table 3. Comparison of Extremes and Averages of Six Climate Parameters in the Beijing Area: Yuan Dynasty (about 650 Years Ago) vs. Nowadays.
Table 3. Comparison of Extremes and Averages of Six Climate Parameters in the Beijing Area: Yuan Dynasty (about 650 Years Ago) vs. Nowadays.
TimeYuan Dynasty
(About 650 Years Ago)		Nowadays
Climate ParameterMinimum ValueMaximum ValueMean ValueMinimum ValueMaximum ValueMean Value
MAT7.4015.5013.168.0314.0313.12
MTCM−6.504.200.46−6.403.07−1.18
MTWM18.7028.0024.5823.4029.6026.38
AP7311358.00970279.80733.20514.64
PWQ346691461.199.40344.30111.52
PCQ1597.0069.2700.037.704.90
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Liu, H.; Bi, H. Climate Reconstruction of the Beijing Area over 650 Years Ago Based on Textual Research. Atmosphere 2025, 16, 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16121394

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Liu H, Bi H. Climate Reconstruction of the Beijing Area over 650 Years Ago Based on Textual Research. Atmosphere. 2025; 16(12):1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16121394

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Liu, Haiming, and Haiyan Bi. 2025. "Climate Reconstruction of the Beijing Area over 650 Years Ago Based on Textual Research" Atmosphere 16, no. 12: 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16121394

APA Style

Liu, H., & Bi, H. (2025). Climate Reconstruction of the Beijing Area over 650 Years Ago Based on Textual Research. Atmosphere, 16(12), 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16121394

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