Strategies to Overcome the Challenges of Integrating Ocean Literacy into School Curricula

Abstract

This study examines teachers’ awareness, experiences, and perceptions concerning Ocean Literacy (OL), with particular emphasis on their knowledge levels and the pedagogical, structural, and institutional challenges associated with integrating OL into formal education. Since the early 2000s, the concept of Ocean Literacy has been defined as understanding the ocean’s influence on humans and humans’ influence on the ocean. The paper draws on work conducted within the Erasmus+ project Sea Tales, one of whose aims was to explore and deepen understanding of Ocean Literacy. Employing a cross-cultural comparative design, this research analyses how OL is conceptualised and enacted within educational contexts in Iceland, Greece, Portugal, and Romania. A mixed-methods methodology was adopted, comprising a systematic literature review, country-specific investigations, co-design sessions with educators and relevant OL stakeholders, and a large-scale teacher survey (N = 266). Findings indicate a pronounced discrepancy between teachers’ high motivation to incorporate OL and the limited institutional and pedagogical support available to them. The study advocates for the development of a holistic, flexible, and multi-tiered teacher training framework that is responsive to contextual constraints, offers accessible and ready-to-use materials, and provides differentiated pathways that cater to both novice and experienced educators.

1. Introduction

Life on Earth depends on the ocean, which produces 50% to 80% of the planet’s oxygen. Covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface, the ocean plays a crucial role in regulating the climate, supporting biodiversity, enabling food production, and contributing to the global economy, among other essential functions [1]. However, in recent decades, human activities have had a devastating impact on the ocean. Pollution, overexploitation of marine resources, habitat destruction, ocean acidification and climate change have all contributed to its deterioration, threatening marine ecosystems, and the services they provide. In response to the deterioration of the ocean, the United Nations launched the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) to support Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14—Life Below Water) and foster ocean literacy (OL) worldwide [2,3]. This initiative aims to shift behaviours and transform people’s relationships with the ocean. Currently, ocean literacy is not an integral part of school curricula, as its content and topics are not well represented therein. Having the potential to be mainstreamed in an interdisciplinary way across various topics, from science to art [4], they are currently scattered across science curricula, with different subjects organised in separate disciplines. This is attributed mainly to the inflexibility of some curricula in integrating such activities, but most importantly, the fact that national educational priorities and respective curricula are overcrowded, leaving limited room for proper familiarisation with ocean-related issues [5,6]. Other important factors contributing to this under-representation include a lack of teacher confidence in ocean topics, limited resources available, and, most importantly, the lack of teacher training and support, including ready-to-use resources, as well as the diversity of languages and cultures across the continent’s sea basins [7]. Although growing efforts are being made to address these challenges, education systems need to be further reinforced by defining relevant learning objectives and content, as well as by introducing ocean pedagogies to promote ocean literacy education and empower learners, while driving actions towards environmental sustainability [4]. The aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic and advancements in technology have significantly impacted education, creating an urgent need to respond creatively to learning in a dynamic environment [5].

In this context, the main research question of the study is the following:

• What is the level of knowledge on Ocean Literacy?
• What are the needs and challenges that educators face regarding the integration of Ocean Literacy?

The cross-cultural comparison across countries such as Iceland, Greece, Portugal, and Romania offers an opportunity to examine how Ocean Literacy is portrayed in education in these countries.

This research was funded by the European Union, grant number KA220-SCH-3CA71D6.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Literature Review

Since the early 2000s, the concept of Ocean Literacy (OL) has emerged as a key framework for examining and critically assessing the relationship between humans and the ocean. Ocean Literacy is defined as an understanding of “your influence on the ocean and the ocean’s influence on you” [8]. The term Ocean Literacy was first introduced in 2004 by a group of ocean scientists and education professionals in the United States, who identified a significant lack of ocean-related content within formal education systems. In response, they developed a structured framework aimed at integrating ocean sciences into national and state education standards [4,9].

The Principles of Ocean Literacy can be divided into 7 categories:

• Earth has one Ocean with many features.
• The Ocean and life in the Ocean shape the features of Earth.
• The Ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.
• The Ocean makes Earth habitable.
• The Ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.
• The Ocean and humans are inextricably linked.
• The Ocean is largely unexplored [10].

Together, these principles emphasise the central role of the ocean in Earth systems and human well-being [11]. The relevance of Ocean Literacy is underscored by growing scientific evidence of anthropogenic impacts on the Earth system. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [12] has unequivocally concluded that human activities have significantly contributed to the warming of the atmosphere, oceans, and land [12]. In response to these findings, the United Nations launched the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030), with the aim of reversing the decline in ocean health and mobilising global stakeholders around a shared framework. This initiative seeks to ensure that ocean science effectively supports sustainable development and evidence-based decision-making at multiple governance levels [13].

Despite various efforts by countries worldwide, OL remains low, particularly among young people. Many students receive little to no exposure to ocean-related topics in their formal education, leaving OL underrepresented in school curricula [4]. As a result, students may fail to recognise the ocean’s importance and value and miss opportunities to develop the knowledge and skills needed to make informed, responsible decisions about ocean-related issues. OL is not an integral part of school curricula, with its topics and content underrepresented in formal education. Although OL has potential to be integrated across multiple disciplines from science to art [4] it is often fragmented within science curricula, with subjects separately rather than in an interdisciplinary manner, the lack of integration is primarily due to the inflexibility of some curricula to incorporate ocean-related topics and overcrowded national education priorities, which leave little room for introducing OL [5,6] and limited teacher confidence in teaching ocean-related subjects. Additional barriers include the scarcity of resources for OL education, a lack of teacher training and support in ready-to-use materials, and the diversity of languages and cultures across different marine regions [7]. Although efforts are increasing to address these challenges, education systems need further reinforcement. This includes defining clear learning objectives, developing relevant content, and introducing ocean pedagogies that promote OL education. Strengthening these areas will empower learners and drive actions toward environmental sustainability [4].

As mentioned earlier, the world’s oceans cover over 70% of the Earth’s surface and play a crucial role in regulating the planet’s climate, supporting biodiversity, food production, and economic value, among other things [1,7]. Over the past few decades, human activities have had a devastating impact on the ocean, with pollution, overexploitation of marine resources, habitat destruction, ocean acidification, and climate change being some of the consequences that have led to its deterioration. In response to this decline, the United Nations has launched the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030, aiming to achieve SDG 14 and simultaneously create ocean-literate individuals worldwide by shifting their behaviours and changing people’s relationship with the ocean. Despite different efforts being initiated by different countries worldwide, OL remains low among the general population, and particularly among young people, as many students do not receive sufficient exposure to ocean literacy topics and themes in their schools. Despite its importance, it is often overlooked in formal education, lagging in ocean-related subjects and activities [4]. This can result in failing to recognise and appreciate the importance and value of the ocean, as well as in providing limited opportunities for students to develop the skills and knowledge necessary to make informed and responsible decisions about ocean-related issues.

SEA TALES aimed to fill these gaps by embedding an innovative, inclusive, and action-oriented educational programme into school communities, which would support teachers of primary and secondary education and their students in understanding how we, as individuals, influence the ocean and how the ocean influences us, the core of ocean literacy. Different learners will be impacted differently. Students will be equipped with the right set of skills and competences for better understanding their role as environmental citizens and the effort they need to put into for being responsible and resilient towards the ocean and all its resources; and, educators will further advance their professional development by embedding in their teaching and learning practices ready to use resources for delivering OL education. However, one thing will be common for everyone involved and this has to do with the fact that it will allow all learners to make responsible choices for protecting the ocean and using the opportunities it offers in a sustainable manner, contributing, at the same time, to their well-being, according to the European Green Deal and the development by 2030 of the new generation of ocean leaders, according to the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development [14]. Within educational contexts, engagement with the principles of Ocean Literacy supports the development of blue scientific literacy, enabling learners to interpret complex global phenomena—such as climate change, ocean circulation, and marine biodiversity—through an interconnected, systems-based lens. These principles translate into educational competencies that promote systems of thinking, critical reflection, informed decision-making, and active participation in marine environmental stewardship. Consequently, fostering Ocean Literacy in the classroom extends beyond the acquisition of disciplinary knowledge to include the cultivation of a sense of responsibility toward the ocean as a global commons [6,15].

In view of the above challenges and in light of the “Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development” launched by the UN in 2021, a project like SEA TALES is important as it aims to develop a methodology for ocean awareness and actions at school by capitalising on the educational benefits of creative teaching methods, empowering teachers with new skills, whilst developing relevant skills in students through experiential learning and teamwork. There is thus an immense need to educate teachers about OL, showcasing to them the potential resources and materials that can be utilised and introduced through creative participatory methods. This is exactly what this project aims to address. Educational systems will thus become more inclusive and action-oriented, as ocean issues can be linked to various subjects in curricula [9].

At the international level, a range of organisations have been established to advance Ocean Literacy through education, outreach, and policy engagement. These include the European Marine Science Educators Association (EMSEA), the Canadian Network for Ocean Education (CaNOE), the International Pacific Marine Educators Network (IPMEN), and the Australian Association for Environmental Education (AAEE). Such networks play a key role in supporting educators, sharing best practices, and strengthening the integration of Ocean Literacy across formal and informal learning environments [16].

The integration of Ocean Literacy into school curricula is widely recognised as essential for enhancing awareness and understanding of ocean sustainability. The underlying premise of the Ocean Literacy concept is that increasing public knowledge and awareness of ocean systems through education can foster pro-ocean attitudes and behaviours, reflecting a knowledge-deficit approach to environmental change [17]. While this assumption has been subject to critique, it continues to underpin many Ocean Literacy initiatives and provides a foundation for further research into the links between knowledge, values, and environmental action.

2.2. Methodology

To understand how Ocean Literacy can be integrated into school curricula, it is essential to first identify the challenges educators face and then explore potential solutions. To achieve this, the SEA TALES project team in Iceland, Greece, Portugal, and Romania applied a set of mixed participatory methods [18], ensuring that the results are relevant in each local context and across the project.

The methodological design included a multitude of research methods. Specifically, qualitative and quantitative techniques were employed, including a systematic literature review and country-specific research, a co-design session with educators and relevant Ocean Literacy stakeholders (such as environmentalists, biologists, marine scientists, university professors, and NGO representatives), and a questionnaire administered to teachers [19]. This multi-phase approach ensured that the results were practical and accounted for cross-country variation. The integration of rigorous data collection methods and inclusive and collaborative practices ensured that the methodological design captured educators’ perspectives and that the solutions developed were contextually relevant in participating countries and beyond.

2.2.1. Data Collection Tools and Procedures

Each country’s partner conducted desk research and a country-specific context analysis to identify existing resources, gaps, and policies related to Ocean Literacy. This provided the foundation for subsequent data collection, ensuring that the participatory methods were grounded in evidence and local realities.

To deepen the exploration, curriculum co-design sessions [20] were organised in each country, engaging at least nine stakeholders per country (36 participants in total). Stakeholders were selected based on a mapping exercise and desk research, aiming to identify individuals and/or organisations with relevant expertise, experience, and interest in Ocean Literacy, while ensuring diversity across sectors and perspectives. The participants included educators, environmentalists, biologists, marine scientists, university professors, government/public authorities and representatives of NGOs active in the field of sustainability and Ocean Literacy.

With questions like (1) What is your primary role or expertise in the context of ocean literacy? (e.g., Marine Scientist, Ocean Literacy Expert, City Stakeholder, etc.). (2) If applicable, in which sectors or areas do you primarily work or focus on? (3) Do you prefer hands-on activities, like using drama in education methods when teaching about the ocean? (4) Are there specific teaching methodologies or strategies you find most effective in engaging students with environmental topics? Each country’s partner facilitated these sessions to enable collective reflection, the exchange of perspectives, and the co-creation of a preliminary curriculum that combined ocean literacy with recommendations for adapting it to the school context [20].

The primary source of first-hand data was an online survey distributed to teachers. Through a collaborative process, the project partners designed the survey to capture both shared priorities and country-specific nuances. Lastly, to ensure representativeness, the project set a target of at least 30 teachers completing the surveys per country, with a minimum of 120 responses in total. All tools for data collection were developed collaboratively by project partners, each contributing insights from their respective contexts, as well as identifying opportunities and limitations. In addition to desk research and co-design sessions with relevant stakeholders, the online survey administered to teachers provided key data and information relevant to the next steps of the project. The survey results provided insights into teachers’ needs and perspectives regarding Ocean Literacy.

2.2.2. Piloting of the Material

After all the material was ready, all the countries piloted it with interdisciplinary approaches. The pilot phase examined the implementation of the SEA TALES curriculum across diverse educational contexts, with a particular focus on its contribution to the development of ocean literacy. Across partner countries, teaching practices supported students’ understanding of ocean systems, human–ocean interactions, and the social and environmental dimensions of marine sustainability. While implementation strategies varied, several pedagogical approaches consistently emerged as effective in fostering cognitive, affective, and behavioural components of ocean literacy.

Interdisciplinary integration proved central to advancing ocean literacy outcomes. The curriculum’s flexible structure enabled educators to embed marine themes across various subject areas, including science, language education, civic education, environmental studies, the arts, and information and communication technologies (ICT). This interdisciplinary approach enhanced the relevance of ocean-related content, facilitated alignment with national curricula, and supported the development of transversal competences. Learning activities, including digital storytelling, thematic writing, role-play, collaborative inquiry, debate, and creative production, enabled students to explore marine issues from scientific, cultural, ethical, and societal perspectives, thereby strengthening systems thinking and critical engagement with ocean sustainability.

Different implementation models offered complementary insights into how ocean literacy can be developed within varying structural conditions. Partial and modular implementations, in which selected lessons were integrated across multiple subjects, allowed for in-depth exploration of key ocean literacy concepts within limited instructional time. Full curriculum implementations across multiple grade levels enabled sustained engagement with marine topics and supported cumulative learning, providing evidence of how repeated exposure can deepen understanding of ocean processes, threats, and stewardship responsibilities.

The curriculum also demonstrated strong adaptability across educational levels. In primary education, ocean literacy was fostered through experiential, creative, and place-based activities that supported curiosity, fostered an emotional connection to the ocean, and provided foundational ecological understanding. In lower and upper secondary contexts, students engaged more analytically with ocean-related challenges through research, discussion, and digital content creation, addressing issues such as climate change, marine ecosystems, and pollution. These age responsive approaches supported progression from awareness and connection to critical analysis and solution-oriented thinking.

Extracurricular implementations conducted during school hours further contributed to ocean literacy by enabling flexible, action-oriented learning experiences. Interdisciplinary teacher collaboration and civic-oriented activities supported students’ sense of agency and responsibility toward marine environments. However, these settings also highlighted structural challenges, including limited institutional support, time constraints, and teacher workload, which can affect the depth and sustainability of ocean literacy outcomes.

2.2.3. Sample

The study encompassed a cohort of teachers from both private and public schools across Iceland, Greece, Romania, and Portugal. Participants were identified through a combination of approaches, including outreach via each partner organisation’s existing networks as well as broader recruitment efforts through social media platforms. This mixed recruitment strategy ensured diversity within the sample while enabling access to teachers who may not typically engage in such initiatives.

2.2.4. Data Collection

The data collection for the Sea Tales project focused on identifying existing gaps, needs and opportunities related to integrating Ocean Literacy (OL) into school education across four European countries: Iceland, Greece, Romania and Portugal. To gain both qualitative and quantitative insights directly from educators, the project team developed an online survey, which was shared using the SurveyMonkey platform. The survey was translated into Icelandic, Greek, Romanian, and Portuguese, with each partner adapting the wording to reflect local terminology and cultural nuances, ensuring that participants could understand the questions clearly and feel comfortable responding. The survey included 36 questions, carefully organised into six thematic areas in which for this article we highlight four of them as the article focuses on teacher and school curricula. The four thematic areas are:

Demographic data (e.g., training and professional development, subject, level)

Knowledge of Ocean Literacy

Needs and Challenges

Opportunities

• Training and Professional Development

This structured survey enabled the consortium to collect both information and teachers’ personal insights regarding their familiarity with Ocean Literacy, its presence in current curricula, and what kinds of training they feel they need. The primary aim of the data collection was to identify knowledge gaps and training needs among educators regarding Ocean Literacy. The questions were the following:

• For needs & Challenges

What specific needs do you identify for integrating Ocean Literacy into the curriculum?

In your opinion, what challenges exist that constrain the implementation of Ocean Literacy projects in schools?

What resources or materials do you currently use, or have used in the past, to promote understanding of sustainability and ocean-related issues?

• For learning Objectives

In which specific sectors of ocean-related issues do you think the curriculum modules must delve into?

• Interdisciplinary Connections

Can you identify specific subjects or areas that you believe are particularly suitable for interdisciplinary connections within the context of ocean literacy?

The findings would inform the design of the Sea Tales Teacher Training Club and curricular materials. All participants responded anonymously, and their data were handled confidentially, ensuring alignment with the basic ethical principles of research.

The survey responses offered an overview of the current situation regarding Ocean Literacy and sustainability education in the four participating countries. The combination of closed and open-ended questions gave both measurable indicators and personal reflections, which together painted a picture of the situation in schools. A total of 266 teachers participated in the survey process, comprising 22 from Iceland, 36 from Greece, 50 from Romania, and 158 from Portugal (Table 1). Nearly 60% of all responses came from Portugal, which affected the overall representativeness of the sample. To address this, the analysis was structured to highlight country-specific findings, acknowledging the different sample sizes.

Table 1. Target numbers and collected responses.

Target Group	Educators
	IS	GR	RO	PT
Initial total targeted number	>30	>30	>30	>30
Achieved total number of collected responses	22	36	50	158
Total	266

The final sample of 266 teachers reflected a diverse cross-country profile in terms of educational level and subject areas. In Greece, most participants were primary school teachers, whereas in Iceland, Portugal, and Romania, a more balanced distribution was observed across primary and secondary education. Regarding student age groups, there was a wide variation across countries; however, the 10–12 age group appeared to be the most taught cohort. Moreover, participants represented a wide range of subjects, including the natural sciences, geography, languages, special education, ICT, citizenship, mathematics, drama, and the arts, indicating multiple potential entry points for Ocean Literacy in different curricular areas. This diversity within the sample provides a crucial foundation for understanding different perspectives, needs, and levels of familiarity with OL, thereby informing the interpretation of the survey findings presented in the following chapter.

3. Results

Overall, the findings indicate that the SEA TALES curriculum effectively supports the development of ocean literacy across diverse contexts and educational levels. Its impact is strongest when implementation emphasises interdisciplinary integration, flexible curricular pathways, adequate time for reflection, and learning environments that enable students to connect scientific understanding with ethical awareness and civic engagement in support of ocean sustainability.

The analysis of the survey data, combined with insights from the systematic literature review and the co-design sessions conducted across Iceland, Greece, Portugal and Romania, in the framework of the Sea Tales project, provided a comprehensive understanding of teachers’ current familiarity with Ocean Literacy, as well as the challenges they face and the existing opportunities for integrating OL into school curricula. The results reveal clear patterns, with most teachers having little knowledge of Ocean Literacy, while also highlighting key context-specific challenges. Hence, this section offers a critical interpretation of the data and outlines the implications for teacher training, curriculum design, and the broader aim of mainstreaming Ocean Literacy in European educational systems.

3.1. Teachers’ Familiarity with Ocean Literacy

According to the analysis across all four countries examined, the data revealed that most teachers had never previously implemented Ocean Literacy (OL) projects or related activities. This lack of prior engagement highlights a persistent gap in integrating ocean-related content into school curricula. Although OL is increasingly recognised in global policy frameworks, it remains underrepresented in classroom practice, largely due to limited curricular space and insufficient professional preparation. Teachers consistently reported low self-assessed knowledge about core OL concepts, despite showing awareness of their relevance to today’s environmental challenges. Many educators expressed uncertainty about key topics, including marine ecosystems, pollution, ocean–climate interactions, and biodiversity. This knowledge gap directly affects their confidence in planning and delivering lessons related to OL.

Another shared finding across all contexts reflected the need for personal awareness. Teachers made it clear that they first need to feel confident in their own understanding of key ocean-related issues to feel comfortable teaching OL, and this is closely connected to having access to appropriate training and resources. Participants from Portugal tended to have more years of teaching experience, whereas younger educators were more prominent among the Greek respondents. This allowed the project to strike a balance between expertise and experimentation, identifying both established best practices and new needs, and ensuring that the final outputs are relevant and appealing to different generations of educators.

3.2. Needs and Challenges in Integrating Ocean Literacy

Lack of Institutional and Policy Support

Teachers across all countries emphasised the importance of policy-level recognition and institutional support. Respondents highlighted that existing curricula are already dense and highly structured, making the introduction of new thematic areas difficult without formal integration. While several teachers reported having access to relevant OL content, many of them were unsure where to look or how to integrate OL topics into their existing lesson plans, noting that national curriculum guidelines rarely reference ocean-related learning outcomes.

3.3. Need for Realistic, Flexible, and Time-Sensitive Curricula

Given the competing demands on teachers’ time, respondents requested materials and training that are practical, adaptable, and compatible with existing subject areas. Teachers noted that without clear curriculum connections or at least flexible modules that can be integrated into various subjects, such as science, geography, language education, and citizenship education, OL risks becoming an “extra” rather than a meaningful instructional component.

3.4. Gaps in Resources and Pedagogical Materials

Another important cross-country finding was the scarcity of structured, high-quality, ready-to-use teaching resources. Several teachers indicated that while some materials exist, they are fragmented, difficult to locate, or not aligned with their curriculum requirements. As such, there is a need for complete lesson plans, multilingual resources, introductory scientific explanations, activities appropriate for primary and lower secondary learners, as well as assessment tools and student-friendly activities. The lack of such resources constitutes a critical barrier that prevents the integration of OL in teaching.

3.5. Knowledge and Use of Creative Pedagogies

One of the study’s insights is the disconnection between teachers’ familiarity with creative and experiential pedagogies and their willingness to use them in OL contexts. Educators across all countries recognised the value of experiential learning and storytelling; however, they often felt uncomfortable applying these methods due to limited OL content knowledge.

Professional Development Needs and Preferences

In terms of professional development, teachers demonstrated their openness towards different training formats and the need for differentiated professional development pathways. The most frequent preferences included short, focused online modules and blended learning programmes, as well as hands-on workshops and experiential sessions, and asynchronous learning for teachers with limited time.

Equally important was the fact that educators with more experience in sustainability education expressed the need for advanced content, certification, and opportunities for deeper engagement. These findings reinforce that a one-size-fits-all approach would be ineffective in the context of OL teacher education.

4. Discussion

The results of the study reveal that teachers are motivated but under-supported in terms of Ocean Literacy. While they recognise the importance of ocean-related issues, structural limitations, a lack of training, insufficient resources, limited curriculum flexibility, and inconsistent institutional support prevent them from fully engaging with OL [4,9]. However, the diversity of preferences and experience levels makes it clear that a one-size-fits-all model will not work.

What is needed is a holistic, adaptable, and multi-level teacher training programme that responds to these real and varied needs, is realistic in terms of time, provides structured, ready-to-use resources, operates within real curricular constraints, and offers advanced content and incentives for more experienced educators [4].

It should also be flexible enough to fit different countries and local school curricula, thus strengthening pedagogical competence through creative and experiential methods. These insights have directly informed the design of the Teacher Training Club, the accompanying Curriculum, and the associated support materials. Collectively, these components aim to ensure that the programme is authentically responsive to educators’ articulated needs and accurately reflects the structural and cultural realities of diverse schooling contexts.

What is required is a comprehensive, adaptable, and multi-tiered teacher education programme capable of addressing the heterogeneous and evolving needs of contemporary educators [5,6]. Such a programme must be feasible within the temporal constraints of teachers’ professional responsibilities and provide structured, evidence-informed, and immediately applicable pedagogical resources. Moreover, it should operate coherently within existing curricular frameworks while simultaneously offering advanced, discipline-specific content and substantive incentives to support the continued professional growth of more experienced practitioners.

Equally essential is the programme’s capacity for contextual flexibility. It must be sufficiently robust and versatile to accommodate diverse national and local curricular configurations, thereby ensuring its relevance across varied educational systems. In doing so, it should foster the development of pedagogical competence through creative, experiential, and research-aligned methodologies that promote reflective practice and sustained instructional improvement. The need for realistic, time-sensitive and flexible curricula guided the structure of the Sea Tales educational activities [9]. Instead of a standalone programme, the curriculum is organised into modular units and classroom-ready activities that can be integrated into existing subjects such as science, geography, language education, citizenship, the arts, and drama. Each activity includes clear learning objectives, estimated duration, links to curriculum themes and age appropriate adaptations, allowing teachers to choose what fits their context and available time. In this way, Ocean Literacy becomes an added value inside the curriculum, rather than an “extra” that competes with it. Curriculum components could be (1) Big ideas. The ocean is one interconnected system. (2) The ocean shapes climate, weather, and life learning outcomes strangely unexplored be able to: explain how ocean systems function, analyse human–ocean interactions, see scientific data and observations, propose solutions for ocean sustainability. (3) Competencies developed systems thinking, critical and ethical reasoning, data literacy, and indigenous knowledge awareness.

Overall, the Sea Tales Teacher Training Club and curriculum are not separate from the needs analysis; they are a direct response to it. The gaps and challenges identified through the survey, literature review, and co-design sessions were systematically translated into design principles, content choices, and pedagogical strategies. In this way, the project not only advocates for Ocean Literacy in schools but also provides concrete tools that enable teachers to act on that vision within the real constraints of their everyday practice.

5. Conclusions, Limitations and Implications of the Study

In conclusion, this study examined the challenges teachers face in implementing Ocean Literacy (OL) and explored potential solutions that could support its integration into formal education. Attention was given to teachers’ existing knowledge levels and to the pedagogical, structural, and institutional barriers that influence their ability to incorporate OL into their teaching practice. One of the most striking findings was that most teachers across all participating countries had never engaged in projects specifically related to Ocean Literacy. This result clearly reinforces a long-held assumption: OL remains insufficiently embedded in school curricula and teacher-training programmes, despite its increasing relevance to contemporary environmental issues. Another recurring theme was the importance of teachers’ personal awareness and confidence. Many educators expressed that before they can teach OL effectively, they must first feel assured in their own understanding of ocean-related topics—a confidence that depends heavily on access to relevant professional development and high-quality teaching resources.

Teachers also highlighted the need for institutional and policy-level support, as well as for curricula that are both realistic and responsive to the numerous competing demands of their day-to-day work. Educators from all four countries emphasised the importance of accessible and well-structured teaching materials. Although some teachers reported having access to useful resources, many remained uncertain about where to find OL materials or how to integrate them into existing lesson plans. An especially noteworthy finding was that, although teachers were familiar with creative and experiential pedagogies—such as storytelling—they were reluctant to apply these methods to ocean-related or sustainability topics. This hesitation stems primarily from limited subject knowledge, particularly in areas such as marine biodiversity, pollution, and climate-driven changes in the ocean.

Regarding professional development, teachers expressed openness to a range of training formats. Some preferred short, targeted sessions, while others favoured blended learning or hands-on, experiential approaches. This diversity of preferences underscores the need for the Sea Tales Teacher Training Club to adopt a flexible structure and delivery model that accommodates the varying learning needs of its members.

The examination of the research questions revealed that teachers possess a foundational awareness of current environmental challenges and recognise the importance of incorporating sustainability principles into education. Given that education plays a pivotal role in shaping the actions and perspectives of future generations, the insights from this study offer valuable guidance for educators, policymakers, and stakeholders seeking to strengthen Ocean Literacy. This need is particularly pressing, as many students currently receive little to no exposure to ocean-related topics in their formal education, leaving OL markedly underrepresented in school curricula [4].

While this study provides important insights into teachers’ perceptions and experiences, several limitations must be acknowledged. The sample consisted of 266 teachers, with a majority from Portugal. Although participants represented diverse European contexts, their priorities and approaches may vary considerably. Despite efforts to include teachers from a range of educational backgrounds, the sample may not fully reflect the broader diversity of teacher experiences across the European Union.

Future research could broaden the scope of this study by including additional stakeholder groups, such as students, parents, school administrators, and policymakers. Longitudinal studies monitoring changes in teachers’ attitudes and practices over time would offer deeper insight into the long-term effectiveness of OL-related interventions and training programmes. Comparative studies evaluating different educational approaches to promoting sustainable and ocean-aware behaviours could further inform the development of evidence-based strategies.